Invitation To Psychology Carol Wade and Carol Tavris

Invitation To Psychology Carol Wade and Carol Tavris Power. Point Presentation by H. Lynn Bradman Metropolitan Community College-Omaha Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 1

Learning Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 2

Learning • • • Classical Conditioning in Real Life Operant Conditioning in Real Life Social-Cognitive Learning Theories Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 3

Learning • Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavioral potential) due to experience. • Behaviorism: An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 4

Classical Conditioning Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 5

Classical Conditioning • New Reflexes from Old • Principles of Classical Conditioning • What is Actually Learned in Classical Conditioning Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 6

Pavlov’s Apparatus • Harness and fistula (mouth tube) help keep dog in a consistent position and gather uncontaminated saliva samples – They do not cause the dog discomfort Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 7

New Reflexes From Old • Classical Conditioning: The process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8

Conditioning Terms • Unconditioned Stimulus: – A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning. • Conditioned Stimulus: – An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 9

Conditioning Terms • Unconditioned Response: – A reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning. • Conditioned Response: – A response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it occurs after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 10

Principles of Classical Conditioning • • Acquisition Extinction Higher-Order Conditioning Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 11

Acquisition • A neutral stimulus that is consistently followed by an unconditioned stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 12

Extinction • The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 13

Higher Order Conditioning • A procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 14

Generalization and Discrimination • Stimulus Generalization: – After conditioning, the tendency to respond to a stimulus that resembles one involved in the original conditioning. • Stimulus Discrimination: – The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 15

Classical Conditioning in Real Life Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 16

Classical Conditioning in Real Life • • Learning to Like Learning to Fear Accounting for Taste Reacting to Medical Treatments Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 17

Learning to Fear • An 11 -month old boy – named “Albert” – was conditioned to fear a white laboratory rat – Each time he reached for the rat, Watson made a loud clanging noise right behind Albert • Albert’s fear generalized to anything white and furry – Including rabbits and Santa Claus Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 18

Counterconditioning • In classical conditioning, the process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 19

Operant Conditioning Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 20

Operant Conditioning • • The Birth of Radical Behaviorism The Consequences of Behavior Principles of Operant Conditioning Skinner: The Man and the Myth Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 21

Operant Conditioning • The process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 22

The Consequences of Behavior • Reinforcement: – The process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows. • Punishment: – The process by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 23

Reinforcement • Positive Reinforcement: – The response is followed by presentation of, or increase in intensity of, a reinforcing stimulus. • Negative Reinforcement: – The response is followed by removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of, an unpleasant stimulus. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 24

Punishment • Positive Punishment: – The response is followed by presentation of, or increase in intensity of, a punishing stimulus. • Negative Punishment: – The response is followed by removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of, an pleasant stimulus. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 25

Principles of Operant Conditioning • Extinction • Stimulus generalization and discrimination • Learning on schedule • Shaping • Biological limits on learning Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 26

The “Skinner Box” • When a rat in a Skinner box presses a bar, a food pellet or drop of water is automatically released. • Similar boxes exist for pigeons and many other species. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 27

Learning on Schedule • Continuous Reinforcement: – A reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is always reinforced. • Intermittent (Partial) Schedule of Reinforcement: – A reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is sometimes but not always reinforced. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 28

Skinner: The Man and the Myth • Burrhus Frederick Skinner, 1904 -1990 – Better known as B. F. Skinner • Much misinformation is circulated about his life and work – e. g. , his daughters grew up normal, despite rumors that they were institutionalized Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 29

Operant Conditioning in Real Life Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 30

Operant Conditioning in Real Life • The Pros and Cons of Punishment • The Problems with Reward Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 31

When Punishment Fails • People often administer punishment inappropriately or mindlessly. • The recipient often responds with anxiety, fear, or rage. • The effectiveness can be temporary, and depend on the presence of the person who administers it. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 32

When Punishment Fails • Most misbehavior is hard to punish immediately. • Punishment conveys little information. • An action intended to punish may instead by reinforcing because it brings attention. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 33

Why Rewards Can Backfire • Extrinsic Reinforcers: – Reinforcers that are not inherently related to the action being reinforced, such as money, prizes, and praise. • Intrinsic Reinforcers: – Reinforcers that are inherently related to the action being reinforced, such as enjoyment of the task and satisfaction of accomplishment. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 34

Turning Play Into Work • When preschoolers were promised a prize for drawing with felt-tip pens, the behavior increased. • After they got the prizes, they spent less time with pens than before the study began. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 35

Social-Cognitive Learning Theories Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 36

Social-Cognitive Learning Theories • Learning by Observing • Behavior and the Mind Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 37

Learning by Observing • Observational Learning: – A process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behavior or another (a model) rather than through direct experience; sometimes called vicarious conditioning. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 38

Latent Learning • • Rats: one maze trial/day One group found food every time (red line) Second group never found food (blue line) Third group found food on Day 11 (green line) – Sudden change, day 12 • Learning isn’t the same as performance Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 39