Introductory Psychology Concepts CHAPTER 7 THINKING LANGUAGE AND

Introductory Psychology Concepts CHAPTER 7 THINKING LANGUAGE AND INTELLIGENCE Professor Veronica Emilia Nuzzolo © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Language: the ability to communicate with individuals of your culture. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -2

Stages of language development: cooing, babbling, one-word speech and telegraphic speech. Course of Normal Language Development in Children Age Speech Characteristics 1 -3 months Infant can distinguish speech from nonspeech sounds and prefers speech sounds (phonemes). Undifferentiated crying gives way to cooing when happy. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -3

Stages of language development: cooing, babbling, one-word speech and telegraphic speech. Course of Normal Language Development in Children Age Speech Characteristics 4 -6 months Babbling sounds begin to occur. These contain sounds from virtually every language. Child vocalizes in response to verbalizations of others. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -4

Stages of language development: cooing, babbling, one-word speech and telegraphic speech. Course of Normal Language Development in Children Age Speech Characteristics 7 -11 months Babbling sounds narrow to include only the phonemes heard in the language spoken by others in the environment. Child discriminates between some words without understanding their meaning and begins to imitate word sounds heard from others. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -5

Stages of language development: cooing, babbling, one-word speech and telegraphic speech. Course of Normal Language Development in Children Age Speech Characteristics 12 months First recognizable words typically spoken as one-word utterances to name familiar people and objects. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -6

Stages of language development: cooing, babbling, one-word speech and telegraphic speech. Course of Normal Language Development in Children Age Speech Characteristics 12 -18 months Child increases knowledge of word meanings and begins to use single words to express whole phrases or requests. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -7

Stages of language development: cooing, babbling, one-word speech and telegraphic speech. Course of Normal Language Development in Children Age Speech Characteristics 18 -24 months Vocabulary expands to between 50 and 100 words. First rudimentary sentences appear, usually consisting of two words with little or no use of articles (the, a). This condensed, or telegraphic speech is characteristic of first sentences throughout the world. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -8

Learning language: the role of reinforcement and imitation. The learning-theory approach suggests that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning. A child who says “mama” receives hugs and praise from her mother, which reinforces the behavior of saying “mama” and makes its repetition more likely. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -9

Learning language: the role of reinforcement and imitation. The more words parents say to their children before the age of 3, the larger the children’s vocabulary. (Source: Courtesy of Drs. Betty Hart and Todd Risley, 1977. ) © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -10

Wernicke’s area: The understanding of speech Wernicke’s area, in the temporal lobe, is primarily involved in speech comprehension. Damage to this cortical region leaves patients unable to understand written or spoken speech. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -11

Broca’s area: Speech formation Broca’s area, in the frontal lobe, is mainly involved in the production of speech through its connections with the motor cortex region that controls the muscles used in speech. Damage to this area leaves patients with the ability to comprehend speech, but not to express themselves in words or sentences. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -12

Cognition: occurs when information is being organized, stored, processed, or communicated. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -13

Concepts: ideas that represent a class or category of events or objects. § § Enable us to organize complex phenomena into simpler, and therefore more easily usable, cognitive categories. Help us classify newly encountered objects on the basis of our past experiences How do you view these structures? Two houses of worship (A & B), two similar examples of architecture (B & C), or three buildings: all illustrate the use of concepts. A. B. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. C. 7 -14

Prototypes: typical, highly representative examples of a concept. High agreement exists among people in a particular culture about which examples of a concept are prototypes, as well as which examples are not. Ranking of Prototype: Most to Least Typical Furniture Concept Category Vehicle Weapon Vegetable Most Typical Least Typical © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -15

Prototypes: typical, highly representative examples of a concept. Ranking of Prototype: Most to Least Typical Most Typical Least Typical Concept Category Furniture Vehicle Weapon Vegetable Chair Sofa Table Dresser Desk Bed Bookcase Footstool Lamp Piano Radio Stove Car Truck Bus Motorcycle Train Trolley Car Bicycle Airplane Boat Tractor Raft Sled Gun Knife Sword Bomb Grenade Spear Cannon Bow&Arrow Club Tank Fists Rocket Peas Carrots String beans Spinach Broccoli Asparagus Corn Cauliflower Lettuce Beets Eggplant Onion © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -16

Intelligence: The ability to acquire knowledge, think logically, and to use resources effectively. The skills required to adapt successfully to environmental demands may differ from culture to culture, suggesting to some theorists that what constitutes intelligence may be somewhat culturespecific. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -17

Theories of Intelligence g-factor The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence. Fluid Intelligence that reflects information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory. Crystallized Intelligence The accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that are learned through experience and can be applied in problem-solving situations. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -18

Spearman: g-factor The psychometric argument for intelligence as a general ability was first advanced by the British psychologist Charles Spearman (1923). + He observed that school grades in different subjects, such as English and mathematics, were almost always positively correlated but not perfectly + He concluded that intellectual performance is determined partly by a g-factor (general intelligence), and partly by whatever special abilities might be required to perform a particular task. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -19

Gardner: Eight types of intelligence Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner (2003) believes that intelligence may be more broadly conceived as relatively independent intelligences that relate to different adaptive demands. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -20

Gardner: Eight types of intelligence In Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, he currently defines eight distinct varieties of adaptive abilities (Gardner, 2000) 1. Linguistic intelligence: the ability to use language well, as writers do. 2. Logical-mathematical intelligence: the ability to reason mathematically and logically. 3. Visuospatial intelligence: the ability to solve spatial problems or to succeed in a field such as architecture. 4. Musical intelligence: the ability to perceive pitch and rhythm and to understand produce music. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -21

Gardner: Eight types of intelligence 5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: the ability to control body movements and skillfully manipulate objects, as demonstrated by a highly skilled dancer, athlete, or surgeon. 6. Interpersonal intelligence: the ability to understand relate well to others. 7. Intrapersonal intelligence: the ability to understand oneself. 8. Naturalistic intelligence: the ability to detect and understand phenomena in the natural world, as a zoologist or meteorologist might. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -22

Sternberg: Three types of intelligence Robert Sternberg (1988, 2004) is a leading proponent of the cognitive processes approach to intelligence. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence addresses both the psychological processes involved in intelligent behavior and the diverse forms that intelligence can take. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -23

Sternberg: Three types of intelligence Sternberg’s theory divides the cognitive processes that underlie intelligent behavior into three specific components. Types of Intellectual Competence Analytical Intelligence Metacomponents Plan and regulate task behavior Practical Intelligence Performance components Execute strategies specified by metacomponents Creative Intelligence Knowledgeacquisition components Encode & store information Underlying Cognitive Processes © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -24

Emotional Intelligence Involves the ability to read others’ emotions accurately, to respond to them appropriately, to motivate oneself, to be aware of one’s own emotions, and to regulate and control one’s own emotional responses (Mayer et al. , 2004). Branch 1 Branch 2 Perceiving emotions Using emotions to facilitate thought EI Branch 3 Branch 4 Understanding emotions Managing emotions © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -25

Mental Retardation Approximately 3 to 5 percent of the U. S. population, or about 10 million people, are classified as mentally retarded, or cognitively disabled. Category IQ Percentage of Retarded Population Mild: 50 -70 85 Moderate 35 -50 10 Severe 20 -35 4 Profound 20 1 © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -26

Giftedness At the top end of the intelligence bell curve are the intellectually gifted, whose IQs of 130 or higher place them in the top 1 percent of the population. + Many are enormously talented in one area of mental competence but quite average in other domains. + Large discrepancies are often found between verbal and spatial-mathematical skills (Achter et al. , 1996). © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -27

Artificial Intelligence: the attempt to create machines that think like humans. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -28

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence I g-factor • The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence. Fluid Intelligence • Intelligence that reflects information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory. Crystallized Intelligence • • The accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that are learned through experience. Can be applied in problem-solving situations. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -29

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence I Spearman: g-factor Charles Spearman (1923) - British Psychologist who argued for intelligence as a general ability. He observed that: • • School grades in different subjects, such as English and mathematics, were almost always positively correlated. Intellectual performance is determined partly by a g-factor (general intelligence) and partly by whatever special abilities might be required to perform a particular task. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -30

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence I Howard Gardner: Eight Types of Intelligence. Gardner believes intelligence relates to different adaptive demands. He currently defines eight distinct varieties of adaptive abilities (Gardner, 2000): 1) Linguistic Intelligence: the ability to use language well, as writers do. 2) Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: the ability to reason mathematically and logically. 3) Visuospatial Intelligence: the ability to solve spatial problems or to succeed in a field such as architecture. 4) Musical Intelligence: the ability to perceive pitch and rhythm and to understand produce music. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -31

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence I Howard Gardner: Eight Types of Intelligence (continued) 5) Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: the ability to control body movements and skillfully manipulate objects, as demonstrated by a highly skilled dancer, athlete, or surgeon. 6) Interpersonal Intelligence: the ability to understand relate well to others. 7) Intrapersonal Intelligence: the ability to understand oneself. 8) Naturalistic Intelligence: the ability to detect and understand phenomena in the natural world, as a zoologist or meteorologist might. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -32

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence I Sternberg: Three Types of Intelligence Robert Sternberg (1988, 2004) a leading proponent of the cognitive processes approach to intelligence. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence addresses: • • The psychological processes involved in intelligent behavior. The diverse forms that intelligence can take: 1. Analytical Intelligence involves academically oriented problem-solving skills measured by traditional intelligence tests. 2. Practical intelligence refers to the skills needed to cope with everyday demands and to manage oneself and other people effectively. 3. Creative intelligence comprises the mental skills needed to deal adaptively with novel problems. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -33

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence I Sternberg: Three Types of Intelligence Types of Intellectual Competence Sternberg’s theory divides the cognitive processes that underlie intelligent behavior into three specific components. Analytical Intelligence Metacomponents Plan and regulate task behavior Practical Intelligence Performance components Execute strategies specified by metacomponents Creative Intelligence Knowledgeacquisition components Encode & store information Underlying Cognitive Processes © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -34

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence I Emotional Intelligence According to John Mayer and Peter Salovey, emotional intelligence involves the abilities to: • • • read others’ emotions accurately respond to others’ emotions appropriately motivate oneself be aware of one’s own emotions regulate and control one’s own emotional responses (Mayer et al. , 2004) © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -35

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence I Emotional Intelligence According to Mayer and Salovey, emotional intelligence includes four components or branches. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) includes specific tasks to measure each branch. Branch 1 Branch 2 Perceiving emotions Using emotions to facilitate thought EI Branch 3 Branch 4 Understanding emotions Managing emotions © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. MSCEIT Branch 1: Perceiving emotions is measured by people’s accuracy in judging emotional expressions in facial photographs, as well as the emotional tones conveyed by different landscapes and designs. 7 -36

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence I Emotional Intelligence According to Mayer and Salovey, emotional intelligence includes four components or branches. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) includes specific tasks to measure each branch. Branch 1 Branch 2 Perceiving emotions Using emotions to facilitate thought EI Branch 3 Branch 4 Understanding emotions Managing emotions © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. MSCEIT Branch 2: Using emotions to facilitate thought is measured by asking people to identify the emotions that would best enhance a particular type of thinking, such as how to deal with a distressed coworker or plan a birthday party. 7 -37

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence I Emotional Intelligence According to Mayer and Salovey, emotional intelligence includes four components or branches. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) includes specific tasks to measure each branch. Branch 1 Branch 2 Perceiving emotions Using emotions to facilitate thought EI Branch 3 Branch 4 Understanding emotions Managing emotions © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. MSCEIT Branch 3: Understanding emotions is measured by asking people to specify the conditions under which their emotions change in intensity or type; or measuring people’s understanding of which basic emotions blend to create subtle emotions such as envy or jealousy. 7 -38

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence I Emotional Intelligence According to Mayer and Salovey, emotional intelligence includes four components or branches. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) includes specific tasks to measure each branch. Branch 1 Branch 2 Perceiving emotions Using emotions to facilitate thought EI Branch 3 Branch 4 Understanding emotions Managing emotions © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. MSCEIT Branch 4 Managing emotions is measured by asking respondents to indicate how they can change their own or others’ emotions to facilitate success or increase interpersonal harmony. 7 -39

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence II Intelligence Tests Alfred Binet + Developed the first intelligence test to assess the mental skills of French school children. Lewis Terman + Imported Binet’s intelligence test to the United States (1916) and revised it as the Stanford-Binet Scale. + The Stanford-Binet became the standard for future individually administered intelligence tests and is still used today. David Wechsler + Developed a major competitor to the Stanford-Binet (1936). + Today, the Wechsler tests (WAIS-III and WISC-IV) are the most popular individually tests in the United States (Newmark, 2005). © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -40

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence II Intelligence Tests Stanford-Binet: Sample Problems That Should Be Answered Correctly at Particular Ages Age Child should be able to: 3 years • Point to objects that serve various functions such as “shoes” and says, “goes on your feet”. 4 years • Discriminate visual forms such as squares, circles, and triangles. • Define words such as ball and bat. • Repeat 10 -word sentences. • Count up to 4 objects. • Solve problems such as, “In daytime it is light, at night it is. . . ” © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -41

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence II Intelligence Tests Stanford-Binet: Sample Problems That Should Be Answered Correctly at Particular Ages Age Child should be able to: 6 years • State the differences between similar items such as bird and dog. • Count up to 9 blocks. • Solve analogies such as “An inch is short; a mile is. . . ” © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -42

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence II Intelligence Tests Stanford-Binet: Sample Problems That Should Be Answered Correctly at Particular Ages Age Child should be able to: 9 years • Solve verbal problems such as “Tell me a number that rhymes with tree. ” • Solve simple arithmetic problems such as “If I buy 4 cents’ worth of candy and give the storekeeper 10 cents, how much money will I get back? ” • Repeat 4 digits in reverse order © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -43

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence II Intelligence Tests Stanford-Binet: Sample Problems That Should Be Answered Correctly at Particular Ages Age Child should be able to: 12 years • Define words such as muzzle. • Repeat 5 digits in reverse order. • Solve verbal absurdities such as “Bill’s feet are so big he has to pull his trousers over his head. What is foolish about that? ” © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -44

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence II Intelligence Tests Psychologist David Wechsler believed that the Stanford. Binet relied too much on verbal skills. § § Wechsler thought that intelligence should be measured as a group of distinct but related verbal and nonverbal abilities. He developed intelligence tests for adults and children that measured both nonverbal and verbal intellectual skills: • • • The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS, 1939) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC, 1955) Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI, 1967) © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -45

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence II Intelligence Test Construction: Psychometric Standards for Intelligence Tests. Three key measurement concepts apply to all psychological tests and intelligence measures: Reliability Consistency of measurement. Validity How well a test actually measures what it is designed to measure. Standardization a. The development of norms. b. Rigorously controlled testing procedures. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -46

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence II Intelligence Test Construction: Psychometric Standards for Intelligence Tests. Types of reliability and validity in psychological testing: Reliability Meaning and Critical Questions Test-retest reliability Are scores on the measure stable over time? Internal consistency Do all of the items on the measure seem to be measuring the same thing, as indicated by high correlations among them? Interjudge reliability Do different raters or scorers agree on their scoring or observations? © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -47

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Assessing Intelligence II Intelligence Test Construction: Psychometric Standards for Intelligence Tests. Types of reliability and validity in psychological testing: Validity Meaning and Critical Questions Construct validity To what extent is the test actually measuring the construct of interest (e. g. , intelligence)? Content validity Do the questions or test items relate to all aspects of the construct being measured? Criterionrelated validity Do scores on the test predict some present or future behavior or outcome assumed to be affected by the construct being measured? © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -48

Intelligence: The ability to acquire knowledge, think logically, and to use resources effectively. The skills required to adapt successfully to environmental demands may differ from culture to culture, suggesting to some theorists that what constitutes intelligence may be somewhat culturespecific. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -49

Theories of Intelligence g-factor The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence. Fluid Intelligence that reflects information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory. Crystallized Intelligence The accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that are learned through experience and can be applied in problem-solving situations. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -50

Spearman: g-factor The psychometric argument for intelligence as a general ability was first advanced by the British psychologist Charles Spearman (1923). + He observed that school grades in different subjects, such as English and mathematics, were almost always positively correlated but not perfectly + He concluded that intellectual performance is determined partly by a g-factor (general intelligence), and partly by whatever special abilities might be required to perform a particular task. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -51

Gardner: Eight types of intelligence Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner (2003) believes that intelligence may be more broadly conceived as relatively independent intelligences that relate to different adaptive demands. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -52

Gardner: Eight types of intelligence In Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, he currently defines eight distinct varieties of adaptive abilities (Gardner, 2000) 1. Linguistic intelligence: the ability to use language well, as writers do. 2. Logical-mathematical intelligence: the ability to reason mathematically and logically. 3. Visuospatial intelligence: the ability to solve spatial problems or to succeed in a field such as architecture. 4. Musical intelligence: the ability to perceive pitch and rhythm and to understand produce music. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -53

Gardner: Eight types of intelligence 5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: the ability to control body movements and skillfully manipulate objects, as demonstrated by a highly skilled dancer, athlete, or surgeon. 6. Interpersonal intelligence: the ability to understand relate well to others. 7. Intrapersonal intelligence: the ability to understand oneself. 8. Naturalistic intelligence: the ability to detect and understand phenomena in the natural world, as a zoologist or meteorologist might. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -54

Sternberg: Three types of intelligence Robert Sternberg (1988, 2004) is a leading proponent of the cognitive processes approach to intelligence. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence addresses both the psychological processes involved in intelligent behavior and the diverse forms that intelligence can take. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -55

Sternberg: Three types of intelligence Sternberg’s theory divides the cognitive processes that underlie intelligent behavior into three specific components. Types of Intellectual Competence Analytical Intelligence Metacomponents Plan and regulate task behavior Practical Intelligence Performance components Execute strategies specified by metacomponents Creative Intelligence Knowledgeacquisition components Encode & store information Underlying Cognitive Processes © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -56

Emotional Intelligence Involves the ability to read others’ emotions accurately, to respond to them appropriately, to motivate oneself, to be aware of one’s own emotions, and to regulate and control one’s own emotional responses (Mayer et al. , 2004). Branch 1 Branch 2 Perceiving emotions Using emotions to facilitate thought EI Branch 3 Branch 4 Understanding emotions Managing emotions © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 -57