Introduction to Motor Development Human behavior is not

Introduction to Motor Development

Human behavior is not compartmentalized; there is a complex system of constant, reciprocal exchanges among an individual’s cognitive, affective, motor, and physical being

Motor Development n Development--identifiable, progressive flow of changes which are psychological, social, emotional, physical – Developmental psychology – Ontogeny--long term change over the lifespan – Differentiation--becoming something different n Learning--acquisition of knowledge, experience and its application; change in behavior; generation of neural pathways or programs – Experimental psychology – Short term change

Motor Development (continued) n Evolution--specific change of species according to the environment (generation to generation) – Phylogeny Maturation--physical and mental growth and development defined in terms of a definitive time period n Growth--change over time, aging process, change to mature state, acquisition of skills, knowledge, coordination n – Change in physical size

Introduction to Motor Development All five of these previous definitions tend to overlap; often maturation, growth, and development don't include environmental factors n What is Motor Development? n –Clark & Whitall (1989)-Describes the lawful changes in motor skill behavior across the lifespan è Consider the product--end result; task oriented approach è Consider the process--what occurs during the movement; process oriented approach è Consider factors affecting changes Past, present, future è

Motor Development • Working definition for this text – Motor development is the study of changes in human motor behavior over the lifespan, the processes that underlie these changes, and the factors that affect them

Defining Motor Development • Identify similarities and differences between motor development and the following phenomena. – Motor learning – Motor control – Physical growth and maturation

Characteristics of Motor Development • Involves change in movement behavior • Is sequential, age-related, continuous • Depends on underlying processes

Related Areas of Study • Motor learning: relatively permanent gains in motor skill capability associated with practice or experience • Motor control: the neural, physical, and behavioral aspects of movement

Brief History of Motor Development n Precursor Period (late 1700's-1928) – Descriptive observation èDarwin (1787) èTiedemann (1877) n Maturational Period (1928 -1946) – Biological processes--description of processes, and product èGesell (1928) èMc. Graw (1935)-Johnny & Jimmy èBayley (1936)-Motor Development Scale

n Normative/Descriptive Period (1946 -70) – Anthropometric Measurement – Development of Standardized Norms – Product Oriented èGlassow, Espenschade, Rarick n Process Oriented Period (1970 -present) – Concern for processes underlying development – Perception, information processing – Coordination, dynamical systems, lifespan perspective – Film analysis, biomechanics

Research Designs in Motor Development n Cross Sectional Design--study different age groups at the same time period with the same measure – Easy, efficient, quick results – Assumes age causes changes, rather than behavior n Longitudinal Design--study one group of subjects at different ages and different times of measurement – Time consuming, costly – Subject loss over time; test sensitive – Examines change in behavior

n Mixed Longitudinal Design (time lag or sequential) – Combines n two designs to utilize the advantages of both Problems with designs – Chronological age (CD & LD) – Cohort Effects--experiences one brings to testing based upon time raised (CD) – Time of Measurement (LD) n Pros and cons of designs

Research Designs-Pros Cross-sectional Administratively efficient Quickly completed Age differences can be observed Longitudinal Change can be observed across ages Sequential-Cohort Accounts for generational (cohort) effect

Research Designs-Cons Cross-sectional Cannot observe change Cannot determine accurate age of groups Age and cohort are confounded Longitudinal Administratively inefficient Age and time of measurements are confounded Subjects may be influenced by repeated testing Subjects may drop out Sequential. Cohort Administratively inefficient Costly Subjects may drop out Difficult to analyze statistically

Design Comparisons

n Bloom's Taxonomy (1956)--Three Interactive Domains (Fig. 1 -2, p. 6) – Cognitive Domain--one's intellect (Piaget) – Affective Domain--social & emotional – Motor Domain--human movement, our focus – Payne & Isaacs added the physical domain

n Why study motor development? • Study of normal development allows one to identify problems or delayed development • Improve motor performance • Curriculum development; developmentally appropriate activities

Common Motor Development Terms n Direction of Development – Cephalocaudal--from head to tail; growth èHead size in infants èWalking – Proximodistal--from close to body to farther out; prenatal growth èReaching and grasping n Differentiation & Integration – Differentiation refers to the process of moving from gross control of movements to fine precise control of movements – Integration refers to the ability of the system to function together as a unit; coordination

n Types of Movements – Gross movements--controlled by large muscles (walking, hopping, jumping) – Fine movements--controlled by small muscles (typing, writing, drawing, sewing) – Skill like throwing involves both – Fine motor ability develops with maturation n Terms for Age Periods throughout Lifespan – Divisions are not always accurate because they are based on CHRONOLOGICAL age

Chronological Age--length of time from birth n Developmental Age--takes into account rate of maturation n Stages or Phases of Development--Do they exist? n – Roberton--in order to be a it stage" then there must be some hierarchial, qualitative change in human movement èUnique from all other stages èPossess common characteristics in one stage èInvariant order in all individuals – Often used for ease of description

Other Considerations n Why consider a lifespan perspective? – Number of people over the age of 65 continues to increase – Allows us to study both progressive and regressive phases of development èIntrinsic and extrinsic factors n Dynamical Systems Perspective – Movement is a product of the whole system which is constantly interacting and changing – Walking èNeural Perspective vs. Dynamical Systems

Current Trends • Since 1900, US population statistics show – 3 times more people over age 65 – 8 times more people age 65 -74 – 16 times more people age 75 -84 – 31 times more people over 85 • Lifespan perspective – Offers the opportunity to examine a broader ranges of change processes

Newell’s Model of Constraints

Constraints • Limit or discourage certain movements • Permit or encourage other movements • “Shape” movement

Individual Constraints • Inside the body (internal) • Structural constraints: related to the body’s structure – Height – Muscle mass • Functional constraints: related to behavioral function – Attention – Motivation

Environmental Constraints • Outside the body: properties of the world around us • Global, not task specific • Physical – Gravity – Surfaces • Sociocultural – Gender roles – Cultural norms

Task Constraints • External to the body • Related specifically to tasks or skills – Goal of task – Rules guiding task performance – Equipment