Introduction to Human Anatomy Physiology Cells and Tissues
- Slides: 97
Introduction to Human Anatomy & Physiology Cells and Tissues
Cells and Tissues § Carry out all chemical activities needed to sustain life § Cells are the building blocks of all living things § Tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure and function
Anatomy of the Cell § Cells are not all the same § All cells share general structures § Cells are organized into three main regions § Nucleus § Cytoplasm § Plasma membrane Figure 3. 1 a
The Nucleus § Control center of the cell § Contains genetic material (DNA) § Three regions § Nuclear membrane § Nucleolus § Chromatin Figure 3. 1 b
Nuclear Membrane § Barrier of nucleus § Consists of a double phospholipid membrane § Contain nuclear pores that allow for exchange of material with the rest of the cell
Nucleoli § Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli § Sites of ribosome production § Ribosomes then migrate to the cytoplasm through nuclear pores § Site for protein systhesis
Chromatin § Composed of DNA and protein § Scattered throughout the nucleus § Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes when the cell divides
Plasma Membrane § Barrier for cell contents § Double phospholipid layer § Hydrophilic heads § Hydrophobic tails § Also contains protein, cholesterol, and glycoproteins
Plasma Membrane Figure 3. 2
Plasma Membrane Specializations § Microvilli § Finger-like projections that increase surface area for absorption § Membrane junctions § Tight junctions § Desmosomes § Gap junctions Figure 3. 3
Cytoplasm § Material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane § Cytosol § Fluid that suspends other elements § Organelles § Metabolic machinery of the cell § Inclusions § Non-functioning units
Cytoplasmic Organelles Figure 3. 4
Cytoplasmic Organelles § Ribosomes § Made of protein and RNA § Sites of protein synthesis § Found at two locations § Free in the cytoplasm § Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
Cytoplasmic Organelles § Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) § Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances § Two types of ER § Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum § Studded with ribosomes § Site where building materials of cellular membrane are formed § Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum § Functions in cholesterol synthesis and breakdown, fat metabolism, and detoxification of drugs
Cytoplasmic Organelles § Golgi apparatus § Modifies and packages proteins § Produces different types of packages § Secretory vesicles § Cell membrane components § Lysosomes
Golgi Apparatus Figure 3. 6
Cytoplasmic Organelles § Lysosomes § Contain enzymes that digest nonusable materials within the cell § Peroxisomes § Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes § Detoxify harmful substances § Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals) § Replicate by pinching in half
Cytoplasmic Organelles § Mitochondria § “Powerhouses” of the cell § Change shape continuously § Carry out reactions where oxygen is used to break down food § Provides ATP for cellular energy
Cytoplasmic Organelles § Cytoskeleton § Network of protein structures that extend throughout the cytoplasm § Provides the cell with an internal framework Figure 3. 7 a
Cytoplasmic Organelles § Cytoskeleton § Three different types § Microfilaments § Intermediate filaments § Microtubules Figure 3. 7 b–d
Cytoplasmic Organelles § Centrioles § Rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules § Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell division
Cellular Projections § Not found in all cells § Used for movement § Cilia moves materials across the cell surface § Flagellum propels the cell
Cell Diversity Figure 3. 8 a–b
Cell Diversity Figure 3. 8 c
Cell Diversity Figure 3. 8 f–g
Cellular Physiology: Membrane Transport § Membrane Transport – movement of substance into and out of the cell § Transport is by two basic methods § Passive transport § No energy is required § Active transport § The cell must provide metabolic energy
Solutions and Transport § Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or more components § Solvent – dissolving medium § Solutes – components in smaller quantities within a solution § Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and cytosol § Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the cell
Selective Permeability § The plasma membrane allows some materials to pass while excluding others § This permeability includes movement into and out of the cell
Passive Transport Processes § Diffusion § Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a solution § Movement is from high concentration to low concentration, or down a concentration gradient Figure 3. 9
Passive Transport Processes § Types of diffusion § Simple diffusion § Unassisted process § Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small enough to pass through membrane pores § Osmosis – simple diffusion of water § Highly polar water easily crosses the plasma membrane § Facilitated diffusion § Substances require a protein carrier for passive transport
Diffusion through the Plasma Membrane Figure 3. 10
Passive Transport Processes § Filtration § Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure § A pressure gradient must exist § Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high pressure area to a lower pressure area
Active Transport Processes § Transport substances that are unable to pass by diffusion § They may be too large § They may not be able to dissolve in the fat core of the membrane § They may have to move against a concentration gradient § Two common forms of active transport § Solute pumping § Bulk transport
Active Transport Processes § Solute pumping § Amino acids, some sugars and ions are transported by solute pumps § ATP energizes protein carriers, and in most cases, moves substances against concentration gradients
Active Transport Processes Figure 3. 11
Active Transport Processes § Bulk transport § Exocytosis § Moves materials out of the cell § Material is carried in a membranous vesicle § Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane § Vesicle combines with plasma membrane § Material is emptied to the outside
Exocytosis Figure 3. 12 a
Active Transport Processes § Bulk transport § Endocytosis § Extracellular substances are engulfed by being enclosed in a membranous vescicle § Types of endocytosis § Phagocytosis – cell eating § Pinocytosis – cell drinking
Endocytosis Figure 3. 13 a
Cell Life Cycle § Cells have two major periods § Interphase § Cell grows § Cell carries on metabolic processes § Cell division § Cell replicates itself § Function is to produce more cells for growth and repair processes
DNA Replication § Genetic material duplicated and readies a cell for division into two cells § Occurs toward the end of interphase § DNA uncoils and each side serves as a template Figure 3. 14
Events of Cell Division § Mitosis § Division of the nucleus § Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei § Cytokinesis § Division of the cytoplasm § Begins when mitosis is near completion § Results in the formation of two daughter cells
Stages of Mitosis § Interphase § No cell division occurs § The cell carries out normal metabolic activity and growth § Prophase § First part of cell division § Centromeres migrate to the poles
Stages of Mitosis § Metaphase § Spindle from centromeres are attached to chromosomes that are aligned in the center of the cell
Stages of Mitosis § Anaphase § Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles § The cell begins to elongate § Telophase § Daughter nuclei begin forming § A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins to form
Stages of Mitosis Figure 3. 15
Stages of Mitosis Figure 3. 15(cont)
Protein Synthesis § Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein § Proteins have many functions § Building materials for cells § Act as enzymes (biological catalysts) § RNA is essential for protein synthesis
Protein Synthesis § Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein § Proteins have many functions § Building materials for cells § Act as enzymes (biological catalysts) § RNA is essential for protein synthesis
Role of RNA § Transfer RNA (t. RNA) § Transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome for building the protein § Ribosomal RNA (r. RNA) § Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are built § Messenger RNA § Carries the instructions for building a protein from the nucleus to the ribosome
Transcription and Translation § Transcription § Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence to the complimentary base sequence of m. RNA § Translation § Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an amino acid sequence § Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins
Protein Synthesis Figure 3. 16
Body Tissues § Cells are specialized for particular functions § Tissues § Groups of cells with similar structure and function § Four primary types § Epithelium § Connective tissue § Nervous tissue § Muscle
Epithelial Tissues § Found in different areas § Body coverings § Body linings § Glandular tissue § Functions § Protection § Absorption § Filtration § Secretion
Epithelium Characteristics § Cells fit closely together § Tissue layer always has one free surface § The lower surface is bound by a basement membrane § Avascular (have no blood supply) § Regenerate easily if well nourished
Classification of Epithelium § Number of cell layers § Simple – one layer § Stratified – more than one layer Figure 3. 17 a
Classification of Epithelium § Shape of cells § Squamous – flattened § Cuboidal – cube-shaped § Columnar – column-like Figure 3. 17 b
Simple Epithelium § Simple squamous § Single layer of flat cells § Usually forms membranes § Lines body cavities § Lines lungs and capillaries Figure 3. 18 a
Simple Epithelium § Simple cuboidal § Single layer of cube-like cells § Common in glands and their ducts § Forms walls of kidney tubules § Covers the ovaries Figure 3. 18 b
Simple Epithelium § Simple columnar § Single layer of tall cells § Often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus § Lines digestive tract Figure 3. 18 c
Simple Epithelium § Pseudostratified § Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others § Often looks like a double cell layer § Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract § May function in absorption or secretion Figure 3. 18 d
Stratified Epithelium § Stratified squamous § Cells at the free edge are flattened § Found as a protective covering where friction is common § Locations § Skin § Mouth § Esophagus Figure 3. 18 e
Stratified Epithelium § Stratified cuboidal § Two layers of cuboidal cells § Stratified columnar § Surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size and shape § Stratified cuboidal and columnar § Rare in human body § Found mainly in ducts of large glands
Stratified Epithelium § Transitional epithelium § Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching § Lines organs of the urinary system Figure 3. 18 f
Glandular Epithelium § Gland – one or more cells that secretes a particular product § Two major gland types § Endocrine gland § Ductless § Secretions are hormones § Exocrine gland § Empty through ducts to the epithelial surface § Include sweat and oil glands
Connective Tissue § Found everywhere in the body § Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues § Functions § Binds body tissues together § Supports the body § Provides protection § Ability to absorb large amount of water (Water reservoir)
Connective Tissue Characteristics § Variations in blood supply § Most conn. tissues are well vascularized § Tendons and Ligaments have a poor supply § Cartillages are avascular § Connective Tissues are made of : - different types of cells -Non-living substance that surrounds living cells (Extracellular matrix)
MATEIX § It is produced by conn. T. cells § Formed of: *structureless ground substance (water +protein + polysaccharide) *fibers of 3 types - collagen (white) -elastic (yellow) - reticular (fine collagen)
Types of connective tissue § Conn. T. differ in their fibers present in the matrix § From most rigid to softest, C. T. major classes are: -bone -cartilage -dense c. t. -loose c. t. -blood
Loose Connective § Fibers create loose or open network 3 Kinds of Loose Connective Tissue: Areolar Adipose Reticular
Adipose Loose Connective § Made of Fat cells = Adipocytes § Number of cells is always the same, they just shrink during weight loss § Use: cushion, insulator and energy storage
Areolar Loose Connective § Collagen Fibers provide strength § Macrophages guard against unwanted pathogens § Elastic Fibers allow movement § Use: Cushion, support, and allow movement
Reticular Loose Connective § Reticular fibers provide the framework § Found in liver, kidneys, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow § Use: Support and filter
Dense Connective Tightly packed fibers § Tendon: Connect muscle to bone& Ligament: Connect bone to bone& Dermis of skin -has collagen fibers +fibroblasts (fiberforming cells)
Cartilage Connective Tissue § Less hard &more flexible than bone § Gelatinous matrix § Immature Cartilage cell = Chondroblast § Mature Cartilage cell = Chondrocyte § Lacunae = pockets where cells live 2 kinds: Hyaline Elastic
Hyaline Cartilage § Found in the Ribs, sternum and synovial joints+fetal bones (the most abundant cartilage) § Abundant Collagen fibers with rubbery matrix with glassy blue-white appearance § Provides a stiff yet flexible support
Elastic Cartilage § Found in the Outer ear (pinna) and tip of nose § Elastin fibers § Provides support and allows distortion without damage
Fibrocartilage § Found in Intervertebral discs and the pubic symphysis § Densely woven collagen fibers § Resist compression and bone to bone contact
Bone (Osseous Connective Tissue) § Immature Bone cells = osteoblasts § Mature Bone cells = osteocytes § Lacunae = pockets to hold cells § Canaliculi = allow blood and osteocytes to travel § Very hard matrex with calcium salts &large amount of collagen fibers
Bone
Blood Connective Tissue § Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide § Transports nutrients and hormones § Removes wastes from the body § Regulates p. H and electrolytes § Defends against pathogens § Stabilizes body temperature
Blood Composition § Plasma § Proteins § Formed elements Red Blood Cells = Erythrocytes White Blood Cells = Leukocytes Platelets = Thrombocytes
Lymph Connective Tissue § Filters materials § Engulfs foreign particles with Macrophages § Found in Tonsils, Spleen, and all over the body
Muscle is very important. It provides: § movement § maintains posture § supports soft tissue § guards orifices § maintains body temperature
Muscle Tissue 3 Kinds of Muscle: Skeletal Smooth Cardiac
MUSCLE CELL
Skeletal muscle § Also called striated muscle. § The cells are elongated and cylindrical § Possess many nucleic (multinucleate) that is located in the periphery of the cells § Unbranched § The striations are a result of the orderly arrangement of actin and myosin filaments within the muscle § Function: responsible for voluntary movement.
Smooth muscle § Spindle shaped, elongated and pointed ends § Do not show any striation § Position of nuclei is central § Number of nuclei per fiber is one § Contract more slowly than skeletal muscle. § Function: responsible in involuntary activities; without conscious thought § Distribution: walls of internal organs – digestive tract, urinary bladder etc.
Cardiac muscle § Striated like skeletal muscle but branched. § The ends of the cells are joined by intercalated disc. § Intercalated disc has gap junctions that allow communication between the cardiac cells for sequential contraction § One or two nuclei per fiber § Nuclei are centrally located § Function: contraction of the heart. § Distribution: cardiac tissue ( the wall of the heart)
Neural Tissue § Sends messages throughout the body by conducting electrical impulses § The brain and spinal cord are control centers § The neuron is the basic unit
Neuron § Soma = Neuron Cell Body § Dendrites = Receive information § Axon = Carries information along neuron § Axon Terminal = Sends information to next neuron
Tissue Repair (wound healing) § Healing may be by-regeneration(injured tissues are replaced by the same type of cells -Fibrosis (the wound is repaired by scar tissue - or both § Epith. & c. t. regenerate well § Mature cardiac muscle & nervous tissue are repaired by fibrosis
Developmental aspects § Growth through cell division continues through puberty § Cells exposed to friction replace lost cells throughout life. § Conn. T. remains mitotic& forms repair (scar) tissue § Muscle t. becomes amitotic by the end of puberty. § Nervous t. become amitotic shortly after birth
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