Introduction to Human Anatomy Physiology Cells and Tissues

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Introduction to Human Anatomy & Physiology Cells and Tissues

Introduction to Human Anatomy & Physiology Cells and Tissues

Cells and Tissues § Carry out all chemical activities needed to sustain life §

Cells and Tissues § Carry out all chemical activities needed to sustain life § Cells are the building blocks of all living things § Tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure and function

Anatomy of the Cell § Cells are not all the same § All cells

Anatomy of the Cell § Cells are not all the same § All cells share general structures § Cells are organized into three main regions § Nucleus § Cytoplasm § Plasma membrane Figure 3. 1 a

The Nucleus § Control center of the cell § Contains genetic material (DNA) §

The Nucleus § Control center of the cell § Contains genetic material (DNA) § Three regions § Nuclear membrane § Nucleolus § Chromatin Figure 3. 1 b

Nuclear Membrane § Barrier of nucleus § Consists of a double phospholipid membrane §

Nuclear Membrane § Barrier of nucleus § Consists of a double phospholipid membrane § Contain nuclear pores that allow for exchange of material with the rest of the cell

Nucleoli § Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli § Sites of ribosome production §

Nucleoli § Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli § Sites of ribosome production § Ribosomes then migrate to the cytoplasm through nuclear pores § Site for protein systhesis

Chromatin § Composed of DNA and protein § Scattered throughout the nucleus § Chromatin

Chromatin § Composed of DNA and protein § Scattered throughout the nucleus § Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes when the cell divides

Plasma Membrane § Barrier for cell contents § Double phospholipid layer § Hydrophilic heads

Plasma Membrane § Barrier for cell contents § Double phospholipid layer § Hydrophilic heads § Hydrophobic tails § Also contains protein, cholesterol, and glycoproteins

Plasma Membrane Figure 3. 2

Plasma Membrane Figure 3. 2

Plasma Membrane Specializations § Microvilli § Finger-like projections that increase surface area for absorption

Plasma Membrane Specializations § Microvilli § Finger-like projections that increase surface area for absorption § Membrane junctions § Tight junctions § Desmosomes § Gap junctions Figure 3. 3

Cytoplasm § Material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane § Cytosol §

Cytoplasm § Material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane § Cytosol § Fluid that suspends other elements § Organelles § Metabolic machinery of the cell § Inclusions § Non-functioning units

Cytoplasmic Organelles Figure 3. 4

Cytoplasmic Organelles Figure 3. 4

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Ribosomes § Made of protein and RNA § Sites of protein

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Ribosomes § Made of protein and RNA § Sites of protein synthesis § Found at two locations § Free in the cytoplasm § Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) § Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances § Two

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) § Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances § Two types of ER § Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum § Studded with ribosomes § Site where building materials of cellular membrane are formed § Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum § Functions in cholesterol synthesis and breakdown, fat metabolism, and detoxification of drugs

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Golgi apparatus § Modifies and packages proteins § Produces different types

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Golgi apparatus § Modifies and packages proteins § Produces different types of packages § Secretory vesicles § Cell membrane components § Lysosomes

Golgi Apparatus Figure 3. 6

Golgi Apparatus Figure 3. 6

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Lysosomes § Contain enzymes that digest nonusable materials within the cell

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Lysosomes § Contain enzymes that digest nonusable materials within the cell § Peroxisomes § Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes § Detoxify harmful substances § Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals) § Replicate by pinching in half

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Mitochondria § “Powerhouses” of the cell § Change shape continuously §

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Mitochondria § “Powerhouses” of the cell § Change shape continuously § Carry out reactions where oxygen is used to break down food § Provides ATP for cellular energy

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Cytoskeleton § Network of protein structures that extend throughout the cytoplasm

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Cytoskeleton § Network of protein structures that extend throughout the cytoplasm § Provides the cell with an internal framework Figure 3. 7 a

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Cytoskeleton § Three different types § Microfilaments § Intermediate filaments §

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Cytoskeleton § Three different types § Microfilaments § Intermediate filaments § Microtubules Figure 3. 7 b–d

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Centrioles § Rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules § Direct the formation

Cytoplasmic Organelles § Centrioles § Rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules § Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell division

Cellular Projections § Not found in all cells § Used for movement § Cilia

Cellular Projections § Not found in all cells § Used for movement § Cilia moves materials across the cell surface § Flagellum propels the cell

Cell Diversity Figure 3. 8 a–b

Cell Diversity Figure 3. 8 a–b

Cell Diversity Figure 3. 8 c

Cell Diversity Figure 3. 8 c

Cell Diversity Figure 3. 8 f–g

Cell Diversity Figure 3. 8 f–g

Cellular Physiology: Membrane Transport § Membrane Transport – movement of substance into and out

Cellular Physiology: Membrane Transport § Membrane Transport – movement of substance into and out of the cell § Transport is by two basic methods § Passive transport § No energy is required § Active transport § The cell must provide metabolic energy

Solutions and Transport § Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or more components §

Solutions and Transport § Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or more components § Solvent – dissolving medium § Solutes – components in smaller quantities within a solution § Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and cytosol § Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the cell

Selective Permeability § The plasma membrane allows some materials to pass while excluding others

Selective Permeability § The plasma membrane allows some materials to pass while excluding others § This permeability includes movement into and out of the cell

Passive Transport Processes § Diffusion § Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a

Passive Transport Processes § Diffusion § Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a solution § Movement is from high concentration to low concentration, or down a concentration gradient Figure 3. 9

Passive Transport Processes § Types of diffusion § Simple diffusion § Unassisted process §

Passive Transport Processes § Types of diffusion § Simple diffusion § Unassisted process § Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small enough to pass through membrane pores § Osmosis – simple diffusion of water § Highly polar water easily crosses the plasma membrane § Facilitated diffusion § Substances require a protein carrier for passive transport

Diffusion through the Plasma Membrane Figure 3. 10

Diffusion through the Plasma Membrane Figure 3. 10

Passive Transport Processes § Filtration § Water and solutes are forced through a membrane

Passive Transport Processes § Filtration § Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure § A pressure gradient must exist § Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high pressure area to a lower pressure area

Active Transport Processes § Transport substances that are unable to pass by diffusion §

Active Transport Processes § Transport substances that are unable to pass by diffusion § They may be too large § They may not be able to dissolve in the fat core of the membrane § They may have to move against a concentration gradient § Two common forms of active transport § Solute pumping § Bulk transport

Active Transport Processes § Solute pumping § Amino acids, some sugars and ions are

Active Transport Processes § Solute pumping § Amino acids, some sugars and ions are transported by solute pumps § ATP energizes protein carriers, and in most cases, moves substances against concentration gradients

Active Transport Processes Figure 3. 11

Active Transport Processes Figure 3. 11

Active Transport Processes § Bulk transport § Exocytosis § Moves materials out of the

Active Transport Processes § Bulk transport § Exocytosis § Moves materials out of the cell § Material is carried in a membranous vesicle § Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane § Vesicle combines with plasma membrane § Material is emptied to the outside

Exocytosis Figure 3. 12 a

Exocytosis Figure 3. 12 a

Active Transport Processes § Bulk transport § Endocytosis § Extracellular substances are engulfed by

Active Transport Processes § Bulk transport § Endocytosis § Extracellular substances are engulfed by being enclosed in a membranous vescicle § Types of endocytosis § Phagocytosis – cell eating § Pinocytosis – cell drinking

Endocytosis Figure 3. 13 a

Endocytosis Figure 3. 13 a

Cell Life Cycle § Cells have two major periods § Interphase § Cell grows

Cell Life Cycle § Cells have two major periods § Interphase § Cell grows § Cell carries on metabolic processes § Cell division § Cell replicates itself § Function is to produce more cells for growth and repair processes

DNA Replication § Genetic material duplicated and readies a cell for division into two

DNA Replication § Genetic material duplicated and readies a cell for division into two cells § Occurs toward the end of interphase § DNA uncoils and each side serves as a template Figure 3. 14

Events of Cell Division § Mitosis § Division of the nucleus § Results in

Events of Cell Division § Mitosis § Division of the nucleus § Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei § Cytokinesis § Division of the cytoplasm § Begins when mitosis is near completion § Results in the formation of two daughter cells

Stages of Mitosis § Interphase § No cell division occurs § The cell carries

Stages of Mitosis § Interphase § No cell division occurs § The cell carries out normal metabolic activity and growth § Prophase § First part of cell division § Centromeres migrate to the poles

Stages of Mitosis § Metaphase § Spindle from centromeres are attached to chromosomes that

Stages of Mitosis § Metaphase § Spindle from centromeres are attached to chromosomes that are aligned in the center of the cell

Stages of Mitosis § Anaphase § Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles §

Stages of Mitosis § Anaphase § Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles § The cell begins to elongate § Telophase § Daughter nuclei begin forming § A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins to form

Stages of Mitosis Figure 3. 15

Stages of Mitosis Figure 3. 15

Stages of Mitosis Figure 3. 15(cont)

Stages of Mitosis Figure 3. 15(cont)

Protein Synthesis § Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one

Protein Synthesis § Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein § Proteins have many functions § Building materials for cells § Act as enzymes (biological catalysts) § RNA is essential for protein synthesis

Protein Synthesis § Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one

Protein Synthesis § Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein § Proteins have many functions § Building materials for cells § Act as enzymes (biological catalysts) § RNA is essential for protein synthesis

Role of RNA § Transfer RNA (t. RNA) § Transfers appropriate amino acids to

Role of RNA § Transfer RNA (t. RNA) § Transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome for building the protein § Ribosomal RNA (r. RNA) § Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are built § Messenger RNA § Carries the instructions for building a protein from the nucleus to the ribosome

Transcription and Translation § Transcription § Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence to

Transcription and Translation § Transcription § Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence to the complimentary base sequence of m. RNA § Translation § Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an amino acid sequence § Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins

Protein Synthesis Figure 3. 16

Protein Synthesis Figure 3. 16

Body Tissues § Cells are specialized for particular functions § Tissues § Groups of

Body Tissues § Cells are specialized for particular functions § Tissues § Groups of cells with similar structure and function § Four primary types § Epithelium § Connective tissue § Nervous tissue § Muscle

Epithelial Tissues § Found in different areas § Body coverings § Body linings §

Epithelial Tissues § Found in different areas § Body coverings § Body linings § Glandular tissue § Functions § Protection § Absorption § Filtration § Secretion

Epithelium Characteristics § Cells fit closely together § Tissue layer always has one free

Epithelium Characteristics § Cells fit closely together § Tissue layer always has one free surface § The lower surface is bound by a basement membrane § Avascular (have no blood supply) § Regenerate easily if well nourished

Classification of Epithelium § Number of cell layers § Simple – one layer §

Classification of Epithelium § Number of cell layers § Simple – one layer § Stratified – more than one layer Figure 3. 17 a

Classification of Epithelium § Shape of cells § Squamous – flattened § Cuboidal –

Classification of Epithelium § Shape of cells § Squamous – flattened § Cuboidal – cube-shaped § Columnar – column-like Figure 3. 17 b

Simple Epithelium § Simple squamous § Single layer of flat cells § Usually forms

Simple Epithelium § Simple squamous § Single layer of flat cells § Usually forms membranes § Lines body cavities § Lines lungs and capillaries Figure 3. 18 a

Simple Epithelium § Simple cuboidal § Single layer of cube-like cells § Common in

Simple Epithelium § Simple cuboidal § Single layer of cube-like cells § Common in glands and their ducts § Forms walls of kidney tubules § Covers the ovaries Figure 3. 18 b

Simple Epithelium § Simple columnar § Single layer of tall cells § Often includes

Simple Epithelium § Simple columnar § Single layer of tall cells § Often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus § Lines digestive tract Figure 3. 18 c

Simple Epithelium § Pseudostratified § Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others

Simple Epithelium § Pseudostratified § Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others § Often looks like a double cell layer § Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract § May function in absorption or secretion Figure 3. 18 d

Stratified Epithelium § Stratified squamous § Cells at the free edge are flattened §

Stratified Epithelium § Stratified squamous § Cells at the free edge are flattened § Found as a protective covering where friction is common § Locations § Skin § Mouth § Esophagus Figure 3. 18 e

Stratified Epithelium § Stratified cuboidal § Two layers of cuboidal cells § Stratified columnar

Stratified Epithelium § Stratified cuboidal § Two layers of cuboidal cells § Stratified columnar § Surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size and shape § Stratified cuboidal and columnar § Rare in human body § Found mainly in ducts of large glands

Stratified Epithelium § Transitional epithelium § Shape of cells depends upon the amount of

Stratified Epithelium § Transitional epithelium § Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching § Lines organs of the urinary system Figure 3. 18 f

Glandular Epithelium § Gland – one or more cells that secretes a particular product

Glandular Epithelium § Gland – one or more cells that secretes a particular product § Two major gland types § Endocrine gland § Ductless § Secretions are hormones § Exocrine gland § Empty through ducts to the epithelial surface § Include sweat and oil glands

Connective Tissue § Found everywhere in the body § Includes the most abundant and

Connective Tissue § Found everywhere in the body § Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues § Functions § Binds body tissues together § Supports the body § Provides protection § Ability to absorb large amount of water (Water reservoir)

Connective Tissue Characteristics § Variations in blood supply § Most conn. tissues are well

Connective Tissue Characteristics § Variations in blood supply § Most conn. tissues are well vascularized § Tendons and Ligaments have a poor supply § Cartillages are avascular § Connective Tissues are made of : - different types of cells -Non-living substance that surrounds living cells (Extracellular matrix)

MATEIX § It is produced by conn. T. cells § Formed of: *structureless ground

MATEIX § It is produced by conn. T. cells § Formed of: *structureless ground substance (water +protein + polysaccharide) *fibers of 3 types - collagen (white) -elastic (yellow) - reticular (fine collagen)

Types of connective tissue § Conn. T. differ in their fibers present in the

Types of connective tissue § Conn. T. differ in their fibers present in the matrix § From most rigid to softest, C. T. major classes are: -bone -cartilage -dense c. t. -loose c. t. -blood

Loose Connective § Fibers create loose or open network 3 Kinds of Loose Connective

Loose Connective § Fibers create loose or open network 3 Kinds of Loose Connective Tissue: Areolar Adipose Reticular

Adipose Loose Connective § Made of Fat cells = Adipocytes § Number of cells

Adipose Loose Connective § Made of Fat cells = Adipocytes § Number of cells is always the same, they just shrink during weight loss § Use: cushion, insulator and energy storage

Areolar Loose Connective § Collagen Fibers provide strength § Macrophages guard against unwanted pathogens

Areolar Loose Connective § Collagen Fibers provide strength § Macrophages guard against unwanted pathogens § Elastic Fibers allow movement § Use: Cushion, support, and allow movement

Reticular Loose Connective § Reticular fibers provide the framework § Found in liver, kidneys,

Reticular Loose Connective § Reticular fibers provide the framework § Found in liver, kidneys, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow § Use: Support and filter

Dense Connective Tightly packed fibers § Tendon: Connect muscle to bone& Ligament: Connect bone

Dense Connective Tightly packed fibers § Tendon: Connect muscle to bone& Ligament: Connect bone to bone& Dermis of skin -has collagen fibers +fibroblasts (fiberforming cells)

Cartilage Connective Tissue § Less hard &more flexible than bone § Gelatinous matrix §

Cartilage Connective Tissue § Less hard &more flexible than bone § Gelatinous matrix § Immature Cartilage cell = Chondroblast § Mature Cartilage cell = Chondrocyte § Lacunae = pockets where cells live 2 kinds: Hyaline Elastic

Hyaline Cartilage § Found in the Ribs, sternum and synovial joints+fetal bones (the most

Hyaline Cartilage § Found in the Ribs, sternum and synovial joints+fetal bones (the most abundant cartilage) § Abundant Collagen fibers with rubbery matrix with glassy blue-white appearance § Provides a stiff yet flexible support

Elastic Cartilage § Found in the Outer ear (pinna) and tip of nose §

Elastic Cartilage § Found in the Outer ear (pinna) and tip of nose § Elastin fibers § Provides support and allows distortion without damage

Fibrocartilage § Found in Intervertebral discs and the pubic symphysis § Densely woven collagen

Fibrocartilage § Found in Intervertebral discs and the pubic symphysis § Densely woven collagen fibers § Resist compression and bone to bone contact

Bone (Osseous Connective Tissue) § Immature Bone cells = osteoblasts § Mature Bone cells

Bone (Osseous Connective Tissue) § Immature Bone cells = osteoblasts § Mature Bone cells = osteocytes § Lacunae = pockets to hold cells § Canaliculi = allow blood and osteocytes to travel § Very hard matrex with calcium salts &large amount of collagen fibers

Bone

Bone

Blood Connective Tissue § Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide § Transports nutrients and hormones

Blood Connective Tissue § Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide § Transports nutrients and hormones § Removes wastes from the body § Regulates p. H and electrolytes § Defends against pathogens § Stabilizes body temperature

Blood Composition § Plasma § Proteins § Formed elements Red Blood Cells = Erythrocytes

Blood Composition § Plasma § Proteins § Formed elements Red Blood Cells = Erythrocytes White Blood Cells = Leukocytes Platelets = Thrombocytes

Lymph Connective Tissue § Filters materials § Engulfs foreign particles with Macrophages § Found

Lymph Connective Tissue § Filters materials § Engulfs foreign particles with Macrophages § Found in Tonsils, Spleen, and all over the body

Muscle is very important. It provides: § movement § maintains posture § supports soft

Muscle is very important. It provides: § movement § maintains posture § supports soft tissue § guards orifices § maintains body temperature

Muscle Tissue 3 Kinds of Muscle: Skeletal Smooth Cardiac

Muscle Tissue 3 Kinds of Muscle: Skeletal Smooth Cardiac

MUSCLE CELL

MUSCLE CELL

Skeletal muscle § Also called striated muscle. § The cells are elongated and cylindrical

Skeletal muscle § Also called striated muscle. § The cells are elongated and cylindrical § Possess many nucleic (multinucleate) that is located in the periphery of the cells § Unbranched § The striations are a result of the orderly arrangement of actin and myosin filaments within the muscle § Function: responsible for voluntary movement.

Smooth muscle § Spindle shaped, elongated and pointed ends § Do not show any

Smooth muscle § Spindle shaped, elongated and pointed ends § Do not show any striation § Position of nuclei is central § Number of nuclei per fiber is one § Contract more slowly than skeletal muscle. § Function: responsible in involuntary activities; without conscious thought § Distribution: walls of internal organs – digestive tract, urinary bladder etc.

Cardiac muscle § Striated like skeletal muscle but branched. § The ends of the

Cardiac muscle § Striated like skeletal muscle but branched. § The ends of the cells are joined by intercalated disc. § Intercalated disc has gap junctions that allow communication between the cardiac cells for sequential contraction § One or two nuclei per fiber § Nuclei are centrally located § Function: contraction of the heart. § Distribution: cardiac tissue ( the wall of the heart)

Neural Tissue § Sends messages throughout the body by conducting electrical impulses § The

Neural Tissue § Sends messages throughout the body by conducting electrical impulses § The brain and spinal cord are control centers § The neuron is the basic unit

Neuron § Soma = Neuron Cell Body § Dendrites = Receive information § Axon

Neuron § Soma = Neuron Cell Body § Dendrites = Receive information § Axon = Carries information along neuron § Axon Terminal = Sends information to next neuron

Tissue Repair (wound healing) § Healing may be by-regeneration(injured tissues are replaced by the

Tissue Repair (wound healing) § Healing may be by-regeneration(injured tissues are replaced by the same type of cells -Fibrosis (the wound is repaired by scar tissue - or both § Epith. & c. t. regenerate well § Mature cardiac muscle & nervous tissue are repaired by fibrosis

Developmental aspects § Growth through cell division continues through puberty § Cells exposed to

Developmental aspects § Growth through cell division continues through puberty § Cells exposed to friction replace lost cells throughout life. § Conn. T. remains mitotic& forms repair (scar) tissue § Muscle t. becomes amitotic by the end of puberty. § Nervous t. become amitotic shortly after birth