Introduction to Anatomy Physiology Headings Vocabulary Important Info

Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology Headings Vocabulary Important Info 1

• Anatomy – science of structure – relationships revealed by dissection imaging techniques • Physiology – science of body functions 2

Clinical Observational Techniques • Palpation – feel body surface with hands • pulses and breathing rates • Auscultation – listen to body sounds with stethoscope • abnormal fluid in lungs • Percussion – tap on body surface and listen to echo • air in intestines 3

Levels of Organization • Chemical • Cellular • Tissue • Organs • System Level • Organismic Level 4

Levels of Structural Organization • Chemical Level - atomic and molecular level • Cellular Level - smallest living unit of the body • Tissue Level - group of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together on one task • 4 basic tissue – epithelium – muscle – connective tissue – nerve 5

• Organ Level – grouping of 2 or more tissue types into a recognizable structure with a specific function. • Organ System – collection of related organs with a common function – sometimes an organ is part of more than one system • Organismic Level - one living individual. 6

Interactions of Body Systems • Example: Integumentary System & Skeletal System – Skin produces vitamin D needed for CA absorption and bone growth – Bone marrow produces cells which help the skin resist infection. 7

Life Processes • Metabolism = sum of all chemical processes – breakdown of large molecules into small – building new structural components (proteins) – providing chemical energy for cells • Responsiveness – detect & respond to changes in internal or external environment – some typical responses • muscle contraction, electrical signals, hormone or glandular secretion 8

• Movement – any structural level – body, organ, cell or cell component • Growth – increase in number or size of cells or the material found between cells • Differentiation – specialization of cells for a specific function – stem cells give rise to cells that specialize • Reproduction – formation of new cells or new individuals 9

Autopsy • Postmortem examination of body by dissection • Purpose – confirm or determine cause of death – support findings of other tests – provide info on effects of drug usage – educate healthcare students – reveal congenital defects 10

Homeostatis • Maintaining the internal environment within physiological limits (internal balance) • First described by French physiologist, 1813 -1878 • Process named by Walter Cannon, 18711945 • Example – blood glucose level is kept within narrow range 70110/100 ml 11

Homeostasis of Body Fluids • Delineation of fluid compartments • Intracellular Fluid (ICF) = w/i cells • Extracellular Fluid (ECF) = o/s cells • Intercellular Fluid = tissue fluid = interstitial fluid • Plasma = fluid portion of blood • Composition of fluids change as substances move between compartments – nutrients, oxygen, ions and wastes move in both directions across capillary walls 12

Control of Homeostasis • Homeostasis is continually being disrupted by: – External Stimuli • intense heat, cold , and lack of oxygen – Internal Stimuli • psychological stresses • exercise • Disruptions are usually mild & temporary • If homeostasis is not maintained, death may result 13

Neural and Endocrine Controls • Maintaining a controlled condition – sensory receptors detect change in a monitored variable – nervous system and/or endocrine system responds • Ex: Control of blood gas level – exercise increases blood CO 2 levels – sensory receptors detect change – nervous system increases heart and breathing rates to remove excess CO 2 – adrenal gland releases epinephrine to increase heart and breathing rates 14

Components of Feedback Loop • Receptor – monitors a controlled condition • Control Center – determines next action • Effector – receives directions from the control center – produces a response that changes controlled condition 15

Negative & Positive Feedback Loops • Negative Feedback Loop – – original stimulus reversed most feedback systems in the body are negative used for conditions that need frequent adjustment body temperature, blood sugar levels, blood pressure • Positive Feedback Loop – original stimulus intensified – normal childbirth 16

Homeostasis of Blood Pressure • Pressure receptors in walls of certain arteries detect an increase in BP – Blood Pressure = force of blood on walls of vessels • Brain receives input and signals heart and blood vessels • Heart rate slows and arterioles dilate (increase in diameter) • BP returns to normal 17

Positive Feedback during Childbirth • Stretch receptors in walls of uterus send signals to brain • Brain releases hormone (oxytocin) into bloodstream • Uterine smooth muscle contracts more forcefully • More stretch, more hormone, more contraction etc. • Cycle ends with birth of the baby & decrease in stretch 18

Homeostatic Imbalances • Disorder = abnormality of function • Disease = homeostatic imbalance with distinct… – Symptoms: changes in body function felt by patient such as nausea – Signs: changes in body function that can be observed by doctor such as rash or fever • Diagnosis: skill of distinguishing one disease from another • Epidemiology: how disease is transmitted • Pharmacology: how drugs used to treat disease 19

Basic Anatomical Terminology • Regions of the body • Anatomical position • Anatomical planes, sections and directional terms 20

Anatomical Position • Standardized position • describing directional terms • – standing upright Prone Position = lying face down Supine Position = lying face up – facing the observer, head level – eyes facing forward – feet flat on the floor – arms at the sides – palms turned forward 21

Common Regional Names She is standing in the Anatomical Position • Clinical terminology based on a Greek or Latin root word. • Fill in worksheet to help remember the terms 22

Planes & Sections • Plane: imaginary flat surface that passes through the body. • Section: one of the 2 surfaces (pieces) that results when the body is cut by a plane passing through it. 23

Sagittal Plane • Sagittal Plane – divides the body or an organ into left and right sides • Midsagittal Plane – produces equal halves • Parasagittal Plane – produces unequal halves 24

Other Planes and Sections • Frontal or Coronal Plane – divides the body or an organ into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions • Transverse or Horizontal Plane – cross-sectional – divides the body or an organ into upper (superior) or lower (inferior) portions • Oblique Plane – some combination of 2 other planes 25

Planes and Sections of the Brain (3 -D anatomical relationships revealed) • Horizontal Plane • Frontal Plane • Midsagittal Plane 26

Major Directional Terms 27

• Dorsal & Ventral • Dorsal or Posterior – Back of the body – Brain is posterior to the forehead. • Ventral or Anterior – Front of the body – Sternum is anterior to the heart. Superior & Inferior • Superior – Towards the head – Eyes are superior to mouth. • Inferior – Away from head – Stomach is inferior to the heart. 28

Proximal or Distal • Proximal – nearer to attachment of the limb to the trunk – The knee is proximal to the ankle. • Distal – farther from attachment of the limb to the trunk – The wrist is distal to the elbow. Medial or Lateral • Medial – nearer to midline of body – Heart lies medial to lungs • Lateral – farther from midline of body – The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand. 29

• Brain is posterior to the forehead. • Eyes are superior to mouth. • Stomach is inferior to the heart. • Sternum is anterior to the heart. • The knee is proximal to the ankle. • Heart lies medial to lungs • The wrist is distal to the elbow. • The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand. 30

Dorsal Body Cavity • Near dorsal surface of body • 2 subdivisions – Cranial Cavity • holds the brain • formed by skull – Vertebral or Spinal Canal • contains spinal cord • formed by vertebral column • Meninges (system of membranes) line dorsal 31 body cavity

Ventral Body Cavity • Near ventral surface of body • Visceral Organs (viscera): A group of internal organs housed in the ventral cavity • 2 subdivisions – Thoracic Cavity: above diaphragm – Abdominopelvic Cavity: below diaphragm • Diaphragm = large, dome-shaped muscle • Organs called viscera • Organs covered with serous membrane 32

Abdominopelvic Cavity • Inferior portion of ventral body cavity below diaphragm • Encircled by abdominal wall, bones & muscles of pelvis 33

Thoracic Cavity • Encircled by ribs, sternum, vertebral column and muscle • Divided into 2 pleural cavities by mediastinum • Mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except lungs – "middle" section of the chest cavity 34

Mediastinum • Area behind the breastbone • Midline wall of tissue that contains heart and great vessels, esophagus, trachea and thymus. 35

Serous Membranes • Thin slippery membrane lines body cavities not open to the outside – parietal layer lines walls of cavities (outside) – visceral layer covers viscera (internal organs) within the cavities • Serous fluid reduces friction 36

Pleural & Pericardial Cavities • Visceral Pleura: clings to surface of lungs • Parietal Pleura: lines chest wall • Visceral Pericardium: covers heart • Parietal Pericardium: lines pericardial sac 37

Peritoneum • Visceral Peritoneum --- serous membrane that covers the abdominal viscera (organs) • Parietal Peritoneum --- serous membrane that lines the abdominal wall 38

Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants • Describe locations of organs or source of pain • Tic-tac-toe grid or intersecting lines through navel 39

Medical Imaging • Allows visualization of structures without surgery • Useful for confirmation of diagnosis • Examples of imaging techniques 40

Conventional Radiography • A single burst of xrays • Produces 2 -D image on film • Known as radiography or xray • Poor resolution of soft tissues • Major use is Osteology: study of bones 41

Computed Tomography (CT Scan) • Moving x-ray beam • Image produced on a video monitor of a cross-section through body • Computer generated image reveals more soft tissue detail – kidney & gallstones • Multiple scans used to build 3 D views 42

Digital Subtraction Angiography(DSA) • Radiopaque material injected into blood vessels • Before and after images compared with a computer program • Image of blood vessel is shown on a monitor 43

Ultrasound (US) • High-frequency sound waves emitted by hand-held device • Safe, noninvasive & painless • Image or sonogram is displayed on video monitor • Used for fetal ultrasound and examination of pelvic & abdominal organs, heart and blood flow through blood vessels 44

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) • Body exposed to high-energy magnetic field • Protons align themselves relative to magnetic field • Pulse of radiowaves used to generate an image on video monitor • Can not use on patient with metal in their body • Reveals fine detail within soft tissues 45

Positron Emission Tomography(PET) • Substance that emits positively charged particles is injected into body • Collision with negatively charged electrons in tissues releases gamma rays • Camera detects gamma rays & computer generates image displayed on monitor 46