Introduction The earth began as a physiosphere a

Introduction • The earth began as a physiosphere; a collection of chemicals and compounds interacting with one another in continuous Motion. • Somewhere, in the last 4. 5 billion years, the Earth gave birth to a biosphere; giving life to tens of billions of species of plants and animals. • Then, sometime in the last quarter million years the Earth embarked on a new journey. Mind evolved, and the Noosphere emerged, peaking in the form of human beings. • We have yet to see where the

Life proliferates. It diversifies at an estimated annual rate of 0. 00025%, or about 2. 5 species/million per year… Tree of Life At the same time, Biologists estimate that the normal rate of extinction is about 0. 0001%, or about 1. 0

A minimum ecosystem consists of a producer (a foundation species which produces food from environmental nutrients), a consumer (a keystone species to control population of foundation), and a decomposer (an indicator species to recycle nutrients to the producer). Each of these species is said to hold an Foundation Species —the primary ecological niche. autotroph (producer) in an ecosystem, both in terms of number & influence. ECOSYSTEM Keytone Species –the primary heterotroph (consumer) in an ecosystem who controls the population of foundation species from becoming too numerous. Indicator Species –species whose presence indicates the health of an ecosystem 1 Heterotroph Autotroph Sapratroph

As new species enter the community, they must establish relationships with the existing species. They must find an ecological niches. Autotrophs Photosynthetic Chemosynthetic Heterotrophs Herbivore Carnivore Omnivore Saprotrophs Herbivorous Carnivorous Ominovorous ECOSYSTEM 2 Heterotroph Autotroph Saprotroph

Niches The niches each species holds, and its relationship to other species in the community can be symbiotic, competitive or neutral. No two species within a single ecosystem can occupy the same niche. Autotroph Heterotroph Saprotroph Autotroph Competitive Heterotroph Necrotroph Neutral Symbiotic Competitive Neutral Competitive

Autotrophs Amenalism –an association neutral to one species, but of disadvantage to another. Commensalism –an association advantageous to one species, without harming the other. Mutualism –an association advantageous to both species

Heterotrophs Commensalism –an association advantageous to one species, without harming the other (herbivores eating plants). Mutualism –an association advantageous to both species (bacteria in the intestines of herbivores that assist with digestion). Parasitism –an association advantageous to one species, at the expense and harm of another (parasites). Predation –an act whereby one species hunts and kills another food (the drama of carnivorous predators vs. prey).

Saprotrophs Commensalism –an association advantageous to one species, without harming the other (scavengers and decomposing bacteria have no serious impact on the living).

The Law of the Minimum For a species to survive there must be a minimum of life essentials—a. k. a. air, water, food and shelter. An over abundance of one cannot replace the absence of another (e. g. , an abundance of food cannot replace the absence of any shelter). Climate Temperature Moisture (water) Nutrient Base Soil conditions Water conditions Habitat Shelter Territory

Health of Ecosystem MEASURING THE HEALTH OF AN ECOSYSTEMS Compare ecosystems w/in Biomes to one another… Biome 1 Biome 2 Biome 3 Biome 4 Biome 5 Biome 6 Biome n Species Genera /Acre Populat’ Biomass ns/Acre

Biomes The collection of all ecosystems within a common climate zone is called a Biomes are generally named according to their fundamental or dominant species. With that is the prevailing climate which is based: Latitude (prevailing temperatures variations) Elevation & Landform Precipitation (prevailing moisture variations) Along with these are special considerations, such as the water salinity, and soil type.

Biogeography North Polar M O I S T U R E North Sub-Polar North Temp North Equatorial South Sub-Tropic LATITUDE South Temp Sub-Polar South Polar Dry Moist Wet Other (salinity) ECOSYSTEM Heterotroph Autotroph LANDFORM Mountain Slope Necrotroph Coastal Fluvial Volcanic Erosive BIOME GROUPS Aquatic Desert Shrublands Grasslands Forests

Terrestrial Biomes

It has not always been a smooth road. Within the Phanerozoic Era of the last 540 million years, we know of ten (10) global scale extinctions, five (5) of which are labeled as massive extinctions. Each of these extinctions has been connected to rapid climate change brought on by Estimated total 60 billion species Extinctions Over 540 my

In spite of ten (10) extinction die-offs, life has increased to over 5000 different genera, holding over 12 million different species. Estimated total 60 billion species How has this been possible? It is possible because of life is extremely adaptable to finding ecological niches in which to live. An ecological niche is a term describing the Recoveries Over 540 my

Human Caused Extinctions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Historical rate of extinction is 0. 0001% per year or about 1 species/million per year… Historical rate of diversification is 0. 00025% per year or about 2. 5 species/million per year… Historical rates provide a surplus of 1. 5 species/million per year. Present rate of extinction is 0. 1% per year or about 1000 species/ million per year Present rates create a depletion of 999 species/million per year… This is cumulative a. Over 25 years, nearly 25, 000 species per million will be lost b. Over 100 years, nearly 100, 000 species per million (10% of all living things) will be lost

Human Causes for Extinction HABITAT STRESS & DESTRUCTION 1. Habitat Fragmentation 2. Habitat Degradation 3. Habitat Elimination 4. Habitat Disruption a. Introduction of nonnative species b. Introduction of Pollution Agents c. Climate disruption 5. Habitat Encroachment a. Commercial hunting & poaching b. Commercially induced over production (plantation

Who Will Be Lost? Species within the following groups are listed as threatened or endangered and could become extinct before the end of this century Freshwater Fish Ocean Fish Amphibians Mammals Reptiles Plants Birds 51% 34% 25% 24% 20% 14% 12% For all species 20 -30%

What Can Be Done? TOOLS AT OUR DISPOSAL … • Educate • Legislate • Regulate • Innovate SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM 1. Local 2. Regional 3. National 4. International APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM 1. Species 2. Ecosystem

Habitat Management LAND ZONING & DESIGNATED PRESERVATION 1. Urban 2. Agricultural 3. Park & Recreation 4. Natural Resource Preserves 5. Wildlife Preserves 6. Wilderness Preserves ENDANGERED SPECIES ACTS OF PROTECTION 1. Required registration and licensing 2. Prevention against over commercialization 3. Protection from hunting and poaching