Interviews Chapter 5 Interviews Why interviews n One

Interviews Chapter 5 Interviews

Why interviews? n One of the most common and powerful methods used to understand others Barbour, 1998; Fontana & Frey, 1994 n Discovery process ¡ ¡ ¡ n What happened? Why did it happen? What does it mean to the participant? Allow participants to provide insight into the meaning(s) derived from their experiences, thoughts, & attitudes

Why interviews? n “. . . Through discourses. . . that individuals come to understand themselves, their bodies, and their relationship to food and eating. ” n Lupton, 1996, p. 13

Interviewing as a relationship n n Conversation between 2 people YES but ¡ ¡ Who is in charge? Who determines the questions? Who determines when to move along or change the topic? Who is sharing information?

Types of Interviews - Structured n n n Formal & rigidly controlled Used in survey research, telephone interviews, marketing, etc. Standardized interview guide without room for deviation, explanation of questions, or variation in response ¡ n n Esterberg, p. 86 Interviewer in control Quantitative ¡ no individuality

Types of Interviews – Semi-Structured n n AKA in-depth interviews Flexible & open ¡ n n Allows interviewee to respond in own way Goal to understand what life is like from another person’s perspective Guiding questions & probing questions ¡ requires active & careful listening n n Esterberg, p. 88 Interviewer should remain neutral ¡ not to reveal anything of significance that may “bias” interviewee

Types of Interviews – Unstructured n n Least structured Most like a real conversation Exploratory process One or no prepared questions ¡ Informal observation setting to clarify observation

Interview Procedures n Usually 30 -90 min long ¡ n over 90 min requires a break AND should include prior notice of length Audio-record as unobtrusively as possible ¡ ¡ ¡ Obtain written & oral permission Note anonymity vs. confidentiality Stress opportunity to withdraw n n all or sections shut off audio-recorder & erase sections

Interview Procedures n Location should elicit participant comfort & willingness to talk ¡ avoid hierarchical settings n ¡ unless the participant is favoured seating arrangements n friends chatting

Interview Procedures - Rapport n n n Techniques to facilitate reflection & response Clear understanding about study Small talk at beginning of interview ¡ n When people believe they are being listened to, feel more at ease ¡ n Limit yes/no and other one-word questions/responses active listening by paraphrasing, clarifying, reflecting feelings, summarizing Hospitality ¡ coffee, water, muffins, fresh fruit, etc.

Bias & Social Desirability n n Bias = participant gives information that he/she thinks researcher wants to hear Social desirability = participant responds to social norms ¡ e. g. , Re: physical activity, alcohol consumption, foods eaten, etc.

Preparing for the Interview n Preparing an interview guide ¡ ¡ ¡ essential for semi-structured interviews Provides focus to interview Lists main topics & specific words interviewer should follow May include ideas for probing questions Guiding & probing questions will change depending upon interviewee responses

Interview Guide - Questions n Guiding Questions ¡ ¡ n predetermined open-ended Probing Questions ¡ ¡ ¡ Based on responses to guiding questions Ask for expansion on response to solicit more detail Non-directional when possible

Interview Guide – Questions n n Standard probing questions? Probe until topic is exhausted ¡ ¡ ¡ Why? Be careful with this term on its own & not to use it too much Tell me more about. . . What I hear you saying is. . . It sounds as if that had an influence. . . Can you give me an example of. . . Summarize, then ask, “Is there anything else? ”

Interview Guide – Questions n Deciding what kinds of questions to ask about participant’s. . . n ¡ ¡ ¡ Esterberg, p. 95 -96 Experiences or behaviours Opinions or values Feelings Factual knowledge Sensory experiences Personal background

Examples for kinds of questions n Experiences or behaviours ¡ n Opinions or values ¡ n What sorts of physical activities do you do? Enjoy? What does eating well mean to you? Feelings ¡ How does being able to make healthy food choices make you feel?

Examples for kinds of questions n Factual knowledge ¡ n Sensory experiences ¡ n What are the benefits of eating vegetables and fruit? What does the kitchen smell/look/sound like at Christmas? Personal background ¡ Were your parents (siblings) involved in healthy eating? n How did they encourage you?

Interview Guide – Questions n Open-ended questions ¡ ¡ Limit dichotomies (yes/no) unless you need the yes/no to create a flow chart Avoid leading questions (pre-establishes opinions) at the beginning n ¡ Use general and specific questions n n only lead, when you’ve been given direction to do so General first – then specific Pre-test (pilot test)

Interview Guide – Questions n Structuring & ordering questions ¡ ¡ ¡ n Brainstorm topics & questions Phrasing of questions Organize according to topic Once interviewing, you will follow the lead of interviewee ¡ even though you’ve structured and organized your questions follow his/her lead n Take their lead to re-order questions

Journals n n Reflexive (format of Guba & Lincoln, 1985) Create a paper trail that can be followed ¡ n audit trail After each interview (15 -60 min) make entries about. . . ¡ ¡ perceived success perception of rapport non-verbal data from interview anything that stood out

Transcribing - practicalities n Consistent style – such as ¡ ¡ n n n bold for interviewer; bold & italics for thoughts regular font for interviewee Page numbers, line numbers DO NOT put participants’ names on interviews; code #s only Identify transcribers & interviewers, interview date, transcription date

Transcribing n Ideally, each interviewer should transcribe own interviews to avoid transcriber bias ¡ ¡ ¡ n Verbatim transcription Include non-verbal data (tone, context, mood, etc. ) from journal and memory Insights to significant pauses Alternatively use research assistant ¡ ¡ bound by a confidentiality agreement transcribes, interviewer reads to confirm & annotates data

Transcribing n n Generally, 1 hour interview = 2 - 4+ hours transcribing Focus group interviews can be more difficult to transcribe longer time needed

Pilot Process n Familiarization with interviewing techniques ¡ n n steep learning curve Chance to “pilot” guiding questions Pilot transcription

Preparing for Interview n Deciding whom to interview ¡ n Purposive sampling Who is not interviewed? ¡ What data is not gathered?

Interview Tips n Hermanowicz, J. C. (2002). The great interview: 25 strategies for studying people in bed. Qualitative Sociology, 25(4), 479 -499 ¡ Uses metaphor of dating to describe successful interviewing techniques

E-mail Interviews n n Novel interview technique Advantages over traditional interviewing Serious disadvantages limit use in all areas Cannot be a cheap alternative to F 2 F interviews in all situations n Hunt, & Mc. Hale. (2007). A practical guide to the email interview. Qualitative Health Research, 17, 1415 -1421

Advantages of e-mail interview n Cost ¡ n n Interview people in any locale Allows time for reflection for responses Impersonal allows to say things that may not be said F 2 F Time for rapport to develop ¡ n No travel, recording equipment, transcribing May be many interactions over longer time period than 1 -2 hour F 2 f Overcomes ‘interviewer effects’ ¡ Eliminates visual effects

Disadvantages of e-mail interview n Sampling difficulties ¡ n n Takes to long so lose focus Ethical issues ¡ n n n Only those with Web access or who frequent sites where study is promoted will participate Fail to complete ? chosen to withdraw Missing nonverbal cues Impersonal Multiple interviews at once

Ethical considerations for email interview n Participants should know the number of questions to expect ¡ ¡ n n Prospect of subsidiary questions Responses as detailed as possible Informed consent & avoidance of deceipt Determining if respondent is who they say they are ¡ ¡ Send letter to address for signed informed consent ($$ may limit this option) Be alert to responses that may indicate they are someone other than expected

Focus Groups Use of group interaction to produce data & insights that would be less accessible without the interaction found in a group 89) Morgan, 1988, p. 12 (cited in Ulin, Robinson, & Tolley, 2005, p.

Focus Group Interviews n Why focus groups? ¡ ¡ ¡ n Large amount of data can be collected Identify problems for needs assessment Synergy encourages individuals to extend & refine their thoughts One idea triggers a response from others More security, less pressure for individuals in a crowd Who uses focus groups?

Focus Group Interviews n n Take about 1. 5 -2 hours 6 -12 people per group Location accessible w/ good parking Room selection critical ¡ n Natural, relaxed, casual & informal room encourages conversation Good acoustics for audio & video recording ¡ Electrical outlet access

Interview Guide n Can use activity-oriented questions ¡ ¡ ¡ Ranking, categorization Word association w/ pictures Nominal group technique n To determine topic importance ¡ ID issues, strategies, priorities, etc.

Focus Group Facilitator n n n Able to feel at ease & put others at ease Able to project unconditional respect & acceptance of others Able to convey warmth & empathy Good verbal, interpersonal & listening skills Awareness of own nonverbal reactions Able to interpret & explore what people say in light of research questions n Adapted from Debus, 1986 (cited in Ulin, Robinson, & Tolley, 2004, p. 119)

Focus Group Challenges n Directive moderating style ¡ ¡ n Direct vs. facilitate topic progression Can be disruptive to topic exploration How group members affect each other ¡ Attitudes change during discussions n n New perspectives introduced Social norming

Focus Group Facilitator - Common Errors n n n Allowing 1 or 2 to dominate discussion Not enabling quiet individuals to speak Remaining too long on one topic Interrupting people expressing different viewpoint Failing to probe responses fully ¡ ¡ n n Assumptions or beliefs as stated Not clarifying vernacular Expecting immediate answers - no pause Asking leading questions n Ulin, Robinson, & Tolley, 2004, p. 247 -248

Advantages of Focus Groups n n n Open expression encouraged from marginalized groups Participants often feel empowered Researchers glimpse how people talk about research topic Interpretation of quantitative results facilitated Interaction between participants clarifies responses n Neuman, 2003, p. 396

Limitations of Focus Groups n “Polarization effect” ¡ n n n Attitudes become more extreme after group discussion Limited to one or two topics per session Moderator unknowingly limits open discussion Produces fewer ideas than individual interviews n Neuman, 2003, p. 396

Autoethnography Ethnography of the self Esterberg, 2002, p. 59

Autoethnography n “. . . An autobiographical tale written around a specific cultural location. ” n n Gingras, 2009, pp. 216 Allows researcher to explore own identity within a specific culture n e. g. , as a researcher within research culture

Autoethnography n n To understand researcher’s own experiences Use introspection & recall of own life experiences ¡ n Focus on own thoughts, feelings, beliefs, values, experiences Findings help focus on lives of others

Visual Ethnography n Used by researchers as ¡ ¡ ¡ Memory aids as part of field notes Data sources Discussion prompts n n n Extant Taken by researcher Taken by participants n Bryman & Teevan, (2005). Social research methods. Oxford University Press, p. 178.

Photo-elicitation Interviews n n Researchers introduce photos into research context Researcher-photographer ¡ ¡ n May capture mundane aspects of daily life that stimulate discussion Photos by outsider may not hold meaning to interviewees Interviewee-photographer ¡ “autodriven” interview

Photo-elicitation Interviews n Photos in PEIs 1. 2. Visual inventories of objects, people, & artifacts Depict events that are part of collective or institutional paths n 3. Schools, churches, earlier in life Intimate dimensions of the social n Family, self, connection of self to society, culture or history n Clark-Ibáñez, 2004, p. 1511

Photo-elicitation Interviews n n Cappello, M. (2005). Photo interviews: Eliciting data through conversations with children. Field Methods, 17(2), 170 -182. Clark-Ibáñez, M. (2004). Framing the social world with photo-elicitation interviews. American Behavoral Scientist, 47(12), 1507 -1527.