Instructional Design The 3 Major Approaches to Instructional

Instructional Design The 3 Major Approaches to Instructional Design (EDER 673 L. 91 ) From Calgary With Asst. Professor Eugene G. Kowch January 23, Seminar Two (An Asynchronous Meeting using Web. CT discussion Thread and WWW Course Home Page Material) © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 1

Advance Organizer for This Week 1. Developing our vocabulary: Terms and Definitions in Instructional Design 2. A Comparison of the 3 main approaches to Instructional Design / An Overview to help us understand the main paradigms 3. More detail on Cognitivist Education - A framework for understanding instruction and theory in design 4. Reading & Assignment for next week’s Vclass session. Prep. For Student Jigsaw: Anglin NOTE for New Students: Light Blue Links are “Hot” links: http: //www. ucalgary. ca (just click on the blue link and - there you go!) © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 2

Organizer A. First, we’ll look into our new designer Vocabulary -Questions we’ll answer this week: 1. What is design? 2. What is instructional design? 3. What is instructional design theory? 4. What is technology? 5. What is educational technology? 6. What is instructional technology? © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 3

Organizer B. Then We’ll Compare the 3 Main Approaches to Instructional Design 1. Behaviorism 2. Cognitivism the dominant theory base for ID is cognitivist education (Ch. 3, Reigeluth) 3 Constructivism © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 4

Organizer C. Then, each student is invited to explore your preferred approach to Instructional Design, and think about why you prefer this approach as a designer. (This will be the topic of this week’s discussion thread and readings) For next week, each student will also be assigned a small topic to present in next weeks’ Vclass on either: Current Issues in the field of Educational Technology Current Trends in the field of Educational Technology (the assignment is at the end of these pages) © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 5

A. Definitions in the ID Domain ID Vocabulary A. 1 What is Design? • • • Archer wrote that: “Design is that area of human experience, skill and knowledge which is concerned with man’s ability to mould his environment to suit his material and spiritual needs. ” (Archer, B (1973) “The Need for Design Education. ” Royal College of Art) “Design is essentially a rational, logical, sequential process intended to solve problems or, as Jones put it: “initiate change in man-made things” (Jones, J. C. (1970) “Design Methods and Technology: Seeds of Human Futures)” For the term “design process, ” we can also read “problem-solving process”, which in all but its abstract forms works by consultation and consensus. The process begins with the identification and analysis of a problem or need and proceeds through a structured sequence in which information is researched and ideas explored and evaluated until the optimum solution to the problem or need is devised. © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 6

A. Definitions in the ID Domain ID Vocabulary A. 2 What is Instructional Design? Instructional Design as a Process: • Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities. Instructional Design as a Discipline: • Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies. • Instructional Design as a Science: • • Instructional design is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity. Instructional Design as Reality: Instructional design can start at any point in the design process. Often a glimmer of an idea is developed to give the core of an instruction situation. By the time the entire process is done the designer looks back and she or he checks to see that all parts of the "science" have been taken into account. Then the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion. © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 7

A. Definitions in the ID Domain • ID Vocabulary A. 3 What is Instructional Design Theory? • IT is a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop. The concepts of learn and develop may include cognitive, emotional, social, physical and spiritual concepts (Reigeluth, 1999) • Gagne and Dick (1983) define ID theory as an attempt to relate specified events of instruction and learning processes and learning outcomes: • Based on the knowledge base of learning research theory • Prescriptive in the sense that they attempt to identify conditions of instruction which will optimize learning, retention and learning transfer • Expected to provide, at minimum, rational description of causal relationships between procedures used to teach and their behavioral outcomes, preferably enhanced human performance • • • Interested in reading more about IT Theory and the Grand Masters? Sources: http: //www. personal. psu. edu/faculty/s/j/sjm 256/portfolio/kbase/Theories&Models/theoryintro. html#idtheory http: //www. umich. edu/~ed 626/Dick_Carey/dc. html http: //tip. psychology. org/reigelut. html http: //tip. psychology. org/gagne. html © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 8

ID Vocabulary A. 3 (details by Gagne) Instructional Design Theory Characteristics • • • An orientation towards design, focusing on the means to attain goals for learning and development. It is not description oriented, which emphasizes the results of given events, like information processing theory. Design oriented (goal oriented) theories are practical and useful - and prescriptive. Methods of instruction can be broken into detailed component methods with smaller parts. The methods are probabilistic rather than deterministic - they increase the chances of attaining goals not ensuring them. The goal of ID theory is to attain the highest possible probability of the desired results happening. Interested in reading more? Her’s a good source: Mc. Griff, 2003: http: //www. personal. psu. edu/faculty/s/j/sjm 256/portfolio/kbase/Theories&Models/theoryintro. html#idtheory © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 9

A. Definitions in the ID Domain ID Vocabulary A. 4 What is Technology? • Throughout the twentieth century the uses of the term have increased to the point where it now encompasses a number of “classes” of technology Technology as Objects: Tools, machines, instruments, weapons, appliances the physical devices of technical performance 2. Technology as Knowledge: The know-how behind technological innovation. 3. Technology as Activities: What people do - their skills, methods, procedures, routines 4. Technology as a Process: Begins with a need and ends with a solution 5. Technology as a Sociotechnical System: The manufacturer and use of objects involving people and other objects in combination. 1. © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 10

ID Vocabulary Technology: Further (Optional) Online Reading resources (blue links are hot) Defining Technology and Issues in Philosophy (Excellent link) Bilton, J, 2003: http: //atschool. eduweb. co. uk/trinity/watistec. html Babbage (1832) on Machinery - one of the original treatises http: //socserv 2. socsci. mcmaster. ca/~econ/ugcm/3 ll 3/babbage/index. html Ellul (1981) Argued that technique and use are the same - his commitment to scrutinize technology & society pushes the field forward http: //www. regent. edu/acad/schcom/rojc/mdic/ellul 1. html Ihde, J. (1996). This philosopher outlines technological realism and points out that we often think the technology is a thing that leads us, at our own peril. http: //scholar. lib. vt. edu/ejournals/SPT/v 1_n 1 n 2/ihde. html Mitcham, C. (1994). In his book “Thinking Through Technology”, the history of technology, issues and a philosophical analysis of tech past and present is offered. Excellent: http: //scholar. lib. vt. edu/ejournals/JTE/v 6 n 2/dietrich. jte-v 6 n 2. html Edler, F. (2001). A collection of rigorous philosophical essays on technology. A “must” for a Ph. D. student who is questioning technology in the context of instructional design or Educational Technology http: //commhum. mccneb. edu/PHILOS/techessay. htm © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 11

ID Vocabulary A. Definitions in the ID Domain • • • A. 4 What is Educational Technology? Educational technology is a complex, integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices, and organization, for analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluating, and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of human learning. In educational technology, the solutions to problems take the form of all the Learning Resources that are designed and/or selected and/or utilized to bring about learning, these resources are identified as Messages, People, Materials, Devices, Techniques, and Settings. The processes for analyzing problems, and devising, implementing and evaluating solutions are identified by the Educational Development Functions of Research-Theory, Design, Production, Evaluation-Selection, Logistics, Utilization, and Utilization-Dissemination. The processes of directing or coordinating one or more of these functions are identified by the Educational Management Functions of Organization Management and Personnel Management. Educational technology is a theory about how problems in human learning are identified and solved. Educational technology is a field involved in applying a complex, integrated process to analyze and solve problems in human learning. Educational technology is a profession made up of an organized effort to implement theory, intellectual technique, and practical application of educational technology. Source: AECT, ( 1997) http: //courses. educ. ksu. edu/EDETC 886/Pro. Sem. B/Chandima/AECTdefinition. html © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 12

ID Vocabulary A. Definitions in the ID Domain A. 5 What is Instructional Technology? The most recent definition of the field (which uses the term, instructional technology) has been published by the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT): Instructional Technology is theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning. The complete definition, with its rationale, is presented in the AECT publication: Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (1994). "Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the field. " Washington, DC: Author. • An overview of the field can be found in: • Gagne, Robert M. (Ed. ). (1987). "Instructional technology: Foundations. " Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. • Anglin, Gary J. (Ed. ). (1995). "Instructional technology: Past, present & future" (2 nd ed. ). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Optional Reading: Ely, D. P. (1995). ERIC DIGEST: http: //www. ed. gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed 387117. html Foti, S. (2003) A great compendium of Education Thinkers and their work. http: //www. coe. ufl. edu/webtech/Great. Ideas/index. htm © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 13

So. . What do we do with these • • • © E. Kowch 2002 ID definitions? Vocabulary We now have the language to continue to study the kind of education domain most supported by the bulk of Instructional Design theories today - Cognitivist Education. By looking at the cognitivist education approach first (Reigeluth, Chapter 3) we can compare this foundational way of knowing (epistemology) of ID to the other 2 approaches to Instructional design - as Reigeluth gives us a framework by which we can check instruction theory and practice Behaviorism and Constructivism. Remember the 3 approaches first, then it’s a cognitivist venture…. : -) Instructional Design 14

3 Approaches B. A Comparison of the 3 Main Approaches to Instructional Design Outstanding Behavior ! • • • Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism Cogitator On the beach: I remember what to do When the tide comes in. . Two constructivists learning about Aerodynamics… or friendship… or the ocean © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 15

3 Approaches Behaviorism • • What is Behaviorism? Behaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle, whose essay "Memory" focused on associations being made between events such as lightning and thunder. Other philosophers that followed Aristotle's thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown (1820), Bain (1855) and Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995). The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (Good & Brophy, 1990). Behaviorists view the mind as a "black box" in the sense that response to stimulus can be observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. Optional Reading: http: //fog. ccsf. cc. ca. us/~mmalacho/On. Line/ADDIE. html http: //mercury. sfsu. edu/~ching/personal/Learning/behavior. html Operant Conditioning (Kendridge, 2001) http: //www. biozentrum. uniwuerzburg. de/genetics/behavior Animal Intelligence (Green, 2002) on Thorndike. http: //psychclassics. yorku. ca/Thorndike/Animal/ © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 16

3 Approaches Constructivism • • What is Constructivism? Bartlett (1932) pioneered what became the constructivist approach (Good & Brophy, 1990). Constructivists believe that "learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events. " "What someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind. " (Jonasson, 1991). Jerome Bruner is the father of Constructivism. Optional further Reading on behaviorism http: //www. artsined. com/teachingarts/Pedag/Constructivist. html http: //users. coe. uh. edu/~ichen/ebook/ET-IT/constr. htm http: //www. artsined. com/teachingarts/Pedag/Dewey. html http: //it. coe. uga. edu/itforum/paper 1. html http: //carbon. cudenver. edu/~bwilson/construct. html © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 17

3 Approaches Constructivism (continued) • • • If each person has their own view about reality, then how can we as a society communicate and/or coexist? Jonassen, addressing this issue in his article Thinking Technology: Toward a Constructivist Design Model, makes the following comments: "Perhaps the most common misconception of constructivism is the inference that we each therefore construct a unique reality, that reality is only in the mind of the knower, which will doubtlessly lead to intellectual anarchy. ” (1997) "A reasonable response to that criticism is the Gibsonian perspective that contends that there exists a physical world that is subject to physical laws that we all know in pretty much the same way because those physical laws are perceivable by humans in pretty much the same way. ” "Constructivists also believe that much of reality is shared through a process of social negotiation. . . " If one searches through the many philosophical and psychological theories of the past, the threads of constructivism may be found in the writing of such people as Bruner, Ulrick, Neiser, Goodman, Kant, Kuhn, Dewey and Habermas. The most profound influence was Jean Piaget's work which was interpreted and extended by von Glasserfield (Smorgansbord, 1997). © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 18

3 Approaches Cognitivism • • • © E. Kowch 2002 What is Cognitivism? "Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations established through contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement, although they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a motivator. However, even while accepting such behavioristic concepts, cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information. " (Good and Brophy, 1990, pp. 187). As with behaviorism, cognitive psychology can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, Plato and Aristotle. The cognitive revolution became evident in American psychology during the 1950's (Saettler, 1990). One of the major players in the development of cognitivism is Jean Piaget, who developed the major aspects of his theory as early as the 1920's. Piaget's ideas did not impact North America until the 1960's after Miller and Bruner founded the Harvard Center for Cognitive studies. Instructional Design 19

3 Approaches Cognitive Education: More Detail (Reigeluth, Ch. 3). • • • Cognitive models underlie theory behind most ID models in practice today - but there is a need to go beyond this model, scholars feel (Jonassen, 1997). We need to go beyond designing for the successful achievement of objectives because - some learning is not in the design, and some objectives are too narrow in the learner’s context. Bloom (1956) Designed a taxonomy that related levels of cognition to student capacities. • © E. Kowch 2002 Bloom: A Great summary & Graphics : http: //www. ittheory. com/bloom 1. htm Instructional Design 20

3 Approaches Cognitive Education: More Detail (Reigeluth, Ch. 3). • • • Robert Gagne (1985) proposed a taxonomy of learning outcomes within 3 main categories of the cognitive domain: 1. Verbal information: When a learner states a fact via speech or text. 2. Intellectual Skills: A learner interacts with his/her environment by using symbols (language, gesture, art. . ) 3. Cognitive Strategies: A learner has executive brain functions that allow him/her to manage learning, remembering and thinking. Ausubel, Anderson, Merrill, Reigeluth A summary of the cognitive strategy process chart Gagne invented is on the next page… (cool stuff, no? ; -) Further Optional Reading on Gagne and the Conditions of learning http: //www. my-ecoach. com/idtimeline/theory/gagne. html ** http: //education. indiana. edu/~p 540/webcourse/gagne. html * http: //www. ittheory. com/gagne 1. htm (Excellent) Five Stars ***** © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 21

Gagne - Genius or … process man? 3 Approaches Does this describe learning and memory in your context? © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 22

Cognitive Education: 3 Approaches Reigeluth’s (1999) framework lets us compare (Behaviorist or Constructivist) theories of instruction using 6 Categories 1. Compare the Type of Learning What types of learning do theory and its methods address? (Ie: to memorize, apply a skill, understand relationships or apply general skills? ) 2. Compare the Control of Learning Who controls the nature of the learning process: the teacher, the student or the instructional designer? (ie: is it student or teacher centred? ) 3. Compare the Focus of Learning Do the learning activities revolve around specific topics, or problems or something else? (ie: is the learning interdisciplinary, topical, problem based or domain based) 4. Compare the Grouping of learners: How are the learners grouped - individually or not? (ie: pairs, individuals, small or large teams? ) 5. Compare the interactions for learning: Is the interaction student with teachers, student with student, student with materials? (ie: human or non human) 6. Compare the kinds of support the learners get: What kinds of (emotinal, material or cognitive) support is given to the learner? © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 23

Assignment For Next Week (January 30): Deliverables: 1. Read these notes : -) 2. Read the following online article: Mergel, M. (1998). Instructional Design and Learning Theory. http: //www. usask. ca/education/coursework/802 papers/mergel/brenda. htm This is a great overview of the 3 approaches to ID, with a cute physics metaphor and optional (embedded) reading on the history of the 3 approaches. As you read, ask yourself as a teacher, as a learner and now as a designer of instruction: - Which approach do I favor for teaching? Why? for learning? Why? for Design? Why? - (you don’t need to hand this in - it’ll be in the discussion thread too) 3. 4. Respond to the discussion thread topic, please. Verbal Assignment: Prepare to present your short-topic on Issues or Trends in the Ed Tech field (verbally) on Vclass with us per guidelines on the next page. (this is casual - for conversation and discussion next week in our synchronous session). © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 24

Assignment For Next Week (January 30): A Guideline for the Verbal Assignment A guide for Vclass Discussion next week in our Synchronous Class Please refer to the lists on the following pages of students assigned to see whether you will present an excerpt from either Educational Technology Issues or Trends from the Anglin Book. You’ll present us with a snapshot of your short reading from Anglin. Have some fun with this : -)) These short student assignments will be presented verbally (Gene will use the whiteboard to type up the issues and examples as you speak). Below is a guide to help you. Please provide to the class, when called, to share, the following : -) 1. Please state a brief summary of your topic - Share the main message in the section that you were assigned. 2. Please state an example of your topic as you find it in your practice. - state the context of your practice (where I saw or do this) - state the example (the following is a concrete example of my topic, from my setting…) 3. Please state Your opinion on the topic : In your mind, has this topic changed since 1995 ? How so? 4. Ask someone a question that checks us to see if we understand the main point of your message. © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 25

Student Article Excerpt Assignments for Jan 30 Class: Your section is beside your name - have fun! © E. Kowch 2002 Instructional Design 26