Industrialization of Europe Industrial Revolution began in Britain
Industrialization of Europe Industrial Revolution began in Britain c. 1780 Continental Europe did not really experience industrialization till the C 19 th, but by mid-C 19 th, in many parts of western & central Europe, the impact of industrialization was being felt & contributing to significant social changes.
Impacts of Industrialization in Europe Migration from rural to urban areas Human misery in urban areas (overpopulated, lack of services, illnesses etc) Spread of railways (+improved canal & road networks) after 1830’s/1840’s. (Assisted migration, & industrialization as it required more iron & steel). Proletarianization of labor force (factory workers & urban artisans enter ‘wage economy’ with no control over ‘means of production’ or goods they produced Few rights for workers in factories & poor conditions for urban artisans
The Chartist Movement (1) To begin with workers generally hopeful the liberal movement was a means for improving their lives, but after mid-C 19 th they started losing faith & shifting in some cases towards more radical ideas & agendas of socialist thinkers who argued against the selfish individualism advocated by the liberals While it was not till much later that workers’ rights were paid greater attention, early attempt of workers to organize politically & independently to demand political changes can be seen in Chartist Movement that developed in Britain in mid-1830’s
The Chartist Movement (2) May 1838 Chartists published ‘The People’s Charter’, essentially a list of key political demands incl. : - Universal Male Suffrage - Voting by Secret Ballot - End to Property Qualification for Parliament - Pay for MP’s Although Chartist Movement eventually dissolved, (losing some of its support especially as economic conditions made a relative improvement), its goals were nonetheless later supported by others & ultimately all of the above goals were accomplished.
1848: Year of Revolutions As in 1830, there was in 1848 another wave of revolutionary uprisings in Europe, but this time even more widespread than before (only Britain & Russia remaining largely untouched by effects). This time nationalism also played a greater role, & while most of the uprisings did not ultimately achieve their goals, they shook the Continent like never before. It is for this reason that 1848 is known as the ‘Year of Revolutions’. Again, uprisings of 1848 were typically led by liberals (though in most cases they held nationalist objectives too). Too increase their strength against conservative forces these liberal leaders appealed also to urban working classes. Once they came close to achieving their goals, however, the tendency of liberals was to ignore working class demands for social & economic change causing the 2 allied groups to break-up & allowing forces of conservatism opportunity to reassert authority.
The French Revolution of 1848 (1) Again, as in 1830, the first major revolutionary uprising of 1848 occurred in Paris, France. Since 1830 liberals led by Alphonse de Lamartine, who had themselves contributed to the coming to power of Louis Philippe had become increasingly dissatisfied with his rule & the administration of Prime Minister Guizot. Liberals were unhappy with high levels of corruption & wanted the franchise further broadened & opened-up to more members of the middle classes. Liberals began a political campaign to support their demands by holding series of political ‘banquets’. They called also for working class support which was quite readily given with workers especially hard-hit by the negative economic conditions caused by poor harvests of 1846 & 1847.
The French Revolution of 1848 (2) Feb. 21 st 1848 government banned holding of new banquets. Next day workers took to the streets of Paris to protest & their numbers continued to increase the following day. On 24 th, fearing for his life, Louis Philippe abdicated & fled to England. A new provisional government headed by Lamartine, but incl. more radical workers’ representatives like Louis Blanc, was formed with objective of establishing a new republic & holding elections based on universal manhood suffrage.
The French Revolution of 1848 (3)
The French Revolution of 1848 (4) Elections held on April 23 rd 1848, but, fearing that radicals & socialists of Paris might threaten their newly acquired lands, (they were small-scale landholders since Revolution of 1789), typically conservative, rural peasants voted in large numbers for more moderate & relatively conservative candidates who now dominated the new National Assembly therefore ended many concessions made in the meantime to urban working classes, leading to further working-class rioting in Paris. Workers were eventually suppressed following bloody conflict with troops under command of General Cavaignac who was sent by the Assembly to deal with the problem. Clashes following his arrival in Paris are known as the ‘Bloody June Days’ due to large numbers of workers killed or wounded.
The Rise of Louis Napoleon (1) When presidential elections eventually held for new French Republic, Louis Napoleon stood as a candidate. His greatest asset was his name! The name “Napoleon” symbolized glory, & most impt. social stability & order. . . just the qualities that French populace, (the peasantry in particular), were then seeking. He won elections by a massive majority, gaining approximately ¾ of the votes. Louis Napoleon, however, proved to be no great republican or democrat. In 1851 he took on dictatorial powers, making himself Emperor one year later.
The Rise of Louis Napoleon (2) While some suspicion as to who his father actually was, Louis Napoleon (1808 -1873) was accepted as being the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte (or Napoleon I). Napoleon I’s son died an unhealthy young man, in 1832 in Austria. Out of respect to him, Louis Napoleon was to take on the title of Napoleon III (rather than Napoleon II).
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (1) Throughout much of the Habsburg Empire there were revolts & revolutionary uprisings in 1848 (continuing in some cases into 1849). In March 1848 Magyar nationalist Louis Kossuth called for the greater independence of Hungary. Meanwhile students rioted in Vienna. Quickly losing control of the situation, the once great statesman Metternich resigned & fled, soon to be followed out of the capital by the emperor.
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (2) Metternich fleeing the uprisings of 1848
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (3) The Habsburgs, however, were less fearful of any urban uprisings than they were of a general uprisings of the serfs. There had already been a few instances of serfs attacking official & aristocratic properties & in an attempt to cut-off the danger & to win their loyalty, the decision was taken to abolish serfdom. This was to be one of the most significant gains of the turmoil of 1848.
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (4) This map shows complex ethnic composition of Habsburg Empire. . . in a simplified form! Actually more complex! The map just shows the different regions according to which ethnic group was numerically dominant, but does not reflect fact that even where there is a single colour, e. g Slovakia, there were other ethnic groups too.
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (5) Magyar’s revolted demanding virtual independence for a Hungarian state covering much of the east of the Habsburg Empire, but Romanians & Croatians & Serbs who would thereby come under their control were not happy with this. These ethnic groups now rose up against Magyars & the Habsburgs wisely assisted them. Meanwhile the Czechs also revolted, demanding an autonomous Slavic state of Bohemia & Moravia. . . & in Italy too, the Austrian dynasty was faced first by war (against the neighbouring northern Italian state of Piedmont), then by radicals, republicans & nationalists (most famously Giuseppe Mazzini & Giuseppe Garibaldi) who declared Rome a republic & began to fight for a united Italy.
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (6) With the middle classes worried about radical successes, & the different ethnic groups of the Empire quarrelling amongst themselves, &; with Russian Tsar Nicholas I supporting Habsburg forces with 200, 000 men, one by one uprisings were put down & the Habsburgs reasserted their control. In June 1849, concerned about possibility of a more powerful Italy becoming its southern neighbour, France sent troops to put down uprisings in Rome. French troops remained there, supposedly to protect the Pope, until 1870.
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (7) Mazzini Italy in 1848 Garibaldi
1848: The Frankfurt Parliament (1)
1848: The Frankfurt Parliament (2) Meanwhile, liberals & nationalists were restless in the various German territories too, including in Prussia. Nearly all the gains they made during this year, however, were only temporary; Once order had been restored, the conservative administrations, withdrew concessions that they had earlier made to quieten protest. The biggest disappointment for most German supporters of change was the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament.
1848: The Frankfurt Parliament (3) The Frankfurt Parliament met on May 18 th 1848. Consisted of representatives from all German territories, & its purpose was to unite Germany under a relatively liberal constitution. Conservatives & radical workers were not ofcourse happy with the liberal outlook of most representatives, yet even these representatives had difficulty agreeing among themselves what sort of Germany they wanted. Main split between supporters of a smaller Germany (not incl. Austrian Empire) – the kleindeutsch, & supporters of a larger Germany incl. Austria, + Prussia & other German Bund territories – grossdeutsch.
1848: The Frankfurt Parliament (4) Already having to cope with own internal ethnic quarrels, its ethnic groups fearful of German domination & nationalism threatening its v. existence, Austria rejected idea of unification. Prussia only alternative to lead a united Germany. March 27 th 1849 Parliament offered crown of united Germany to Prussian King Frederick William IV. He refused! Why? : a) because, he argued, kings got their power from God & should not be limited by a constitution such as that which parliament wished to impose b) because, most probably, he wasn’t prepared to fight war, (against other German kings & princes, & possibly against the Habsburgs too), who were not likely to accept this situation. The German liberals efforts had failed miserably, they simply did not have the power to achieve their ends.
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