Individuals as StatusOccupants statussets rolesets normclusters Obligations and

Individuals as Status-Occupants status-sets role-sets norm-clusters

Obligations and Responsibilities Normative Expectations (Rules) Social Status Cognitive Attributes: Beliefs, Values, Motivations and Attitudes Interests Power & Authority Social Capital

Obligations and Responsibilities What am I supposed to do? Where do these come from? How do they change over historical time? – i. e. , fathers and parenting. Social Status Individuals who occupy a given status must take these into account. The extent to which individuals who occupy a given status live up to the responsibilities and obligations that are called for varies.

Obligations and Responsibilities [What am I supposed to do? ] Normative Expectations (Rules) [How am I supposed to do all this? ] Social Status

Normative Expectations (Rules) How am I supposed to do all this? Guidelines, rules for social conduct. They indicate how one “ought” to act or behave in social settings: Social Status Prescribed - Proscribed Permitted - Preferred Norms vary from one culture to another. Norms vary from one sub-culture to another. Norms vary over historical time.

Normative Expectations (Rules) How am I supposed to do all this? Do not confuse “norms” with actual action or behavior. Social Status The extent to which people consider norms legitimate varies. The extent to which people comply with norms varies. Norms vary in their importance: Folkways - norms for routine or casual interactions Mores - norms derived from moral values Taboos - norms that place behavior out of bounds Laws - norms that are codified and are sanctioned

Obligations and Responsibilities [What am I supposed to do? ] Normative Expectations (Rules) [How am I supposed to do all this? ] Social Status Cognitive Attributes: Beliefs, Values, Motivations and Attitudes Mutually reinforcing and reciprocal Expectations. Whether we recognize it or not, we possess a vast storehouse of “social knowledge” and, to varying degrees, know what is expected of us & what to expect of others. S T A B I L I T Y

Obligations and Responsibilities [What am I supposed to do? ] Normative Expectations (Rules) [How am I supposed to do all this? ] Social Status Cognitive Attributes: Beliefs, Values, Motivations and Attitudes Interests [Conflict is built into society. ] S T A B I L I T Y

Interests Conflict is built into society. Social Status Conflict is built into the very fabric of society. It is as normal - and healthy - as the air we breathe and usually occurs in socially patterned ways. By virtue of occupying different Positions, people will have different sets of LEGITIMATE interests, values and attitudes. Thus a great deal of conflict in society is structured: it is the result of people - status-occupants – trying to live up to the expectations placed upon them.

Interests Conflict is built into society. Social Status If conflict is built into the very fabric of society, how is it managed? What are the patterns and functions of conflict? How are conflicts - whether legitimate or not - resolved?

Obligations and Responsibilities [What am I supposed to do? ] Normative Expectations (Rules) [How am I supposed to do all this? ] Social Status Cognitive Attributes: Beliefs, Values, Motivations and Attitudes Interests [Conflict is built into society. ] Power & Authority S T A B I L I T Y

Power & Authority Power: the capacity to impose one’s will over others, even against the resistance of others; coercion. Social Status Authority: the capacity to have others comply with your wishes - even if they would prefer not to - because they recognize the legitimacy of the request. Power and authority are usually not individual attributes, they are located in the positions people occupy; i. e. , U. S. President. The extent to which power and authority are exercised by status-occupants varies; e. g. , Eisenhower, Nixon, Kennedy.

Power & Authority Power and authority are not equally distributed in all social statuses: Social Status employer - employee male - female professor - student dean - professor wealthy - poor white - non-white As a result, we should expect to find different outcomes in society; examples: racial disparities in criminal sentencing unequal pay for men and women

Obligations and Responsibilities [What am I supposed to do? ] Normative Expectations (Rules) [How am I supposed to do all this? ] Social Status Cognitive Attributes: Beliefs, Values, Motivations and Attitudes Interests [Conflict is built into society. ] S T A B I L I T Y Power & Authority Social Capital [Access to Opportunities and Resources] [Inequality is built into society]

Social Capital Access to Opportunities and Resources Inequality is built into society “Central or Controlling Statuses” Social Status Different statuses provide occupants different degrees of access to resources and opportunities - some more, some less. Examples: the double standard the opportunity structure the glass ceiling

Obligations and Responsibilities [What am I supposed to do? ] Normative Expectations (Rules) [How am I supposed to do all this? ] Social Status Cognitive Attributes: Beliefs, Values, Motivations and Attitudes Interests [Conflict is built into society. ] S T A B I L I T Y Power & Authority Social Capital [Access to Opportunities and Resources] [Inequality is built into society]

Status-sets

Status-sets “identities” Father Husband Age: 54 Race: “White” Professor Executive Director Friend Status-Activation & “Salient Statuses” Since individuals occupy multiple statuses, which specific status becomes activated at any given time? How is this “socially negotiated” by partners in interactions? How are discrepant activations resolved?

Status-sets “identities” Father Husband Age: 54 Race: “White” Professor Executive Director Friend Since individuals occupy multiple statuses they are subject to cross-pressures: expectations to comply with contending expectations of different statuses. Status-consistency - to what extent are the beliefs, values attitudes, interests and social standing attached to different statuses in an individual’s status-set consistent? …and then how are the inevitable inconsistencies that arise managed?

Status-sets

Master and Dominant Statuses Master Status: that status within an individual’s status-set that has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life. Dominant Status: that status within an individual’s status-set that is given priority when the behavioral expectations associated with two or more statuses come into conflict. Salient Status: that status within an individual’s status-set that is elicited in a particular situation.

Status-conflict; Status-strain Father Husband Age 52 Race: “White” Professor Executive Director Friend Conflict: living up to the demands and obligations of one status precludes fulfilling the demands and obligations of another status. Strain: fulfilling all of the various status demands and obligations, but at less than peak effectiveness having to prioritize, make trade offs, cut corners.

Social Status and corresponding Role-Set

Role-set corresponding to the status of “Professor” Professor Students Colleagues Deans Support Community Staff (each with a variable “person-set)

Status-conflict or Status-strain Role-conflict or Role-strain

Merton’s General Paradigm of Sociological / Structural Ambivalence: Structurally created Strain “opposing normative tendencies in the social definition of a role or status”

The Paradigm in General: Most extended: incompatible normative expectations of attitudes, beliefs, and behavior assigned to a status or to a set of statuses. Most restricted: incompatible normative expectations incorporated within a single role of a single status.

Specific Conflicts & Contradictions • Conflict among statuses within a status-set; a pattern of conflict of interests or of values within the status-set. • Conflict between several roles associated with a particular status. • Contradictions among general cultural values held by all members of society, i. e. , not specific to a particular status.

Specific Conflicts & Contradictions continued • Conflict or disjunction between culturally prescribed aspirations and socially structured avenues for realizing these aspirations (the opportunity structure). • Contradiction or conflict between crosscultural statuses. • Contradiction or conflict between reference group anchors or identifications.

Anomie – Merton’s Reconceptualization • Reconceptualizes Durkheim's concept of Anomie. • Not an overall, or even localized breakdown in normative structure. • The cultural system and social structure of society is basically intact, workable, functional. • In fact, to a certain extent, Deviance represents the functionality of the system. • Statement: A disjuncture within the cultural system between the Goals (values) which define our lives and the culturally determined, institutionalized, legitimate Means for achieving them.

Merton’s Typology of Individual Adaptation explanation of deviant behavior MODES OF ADAPTATION CULTURAL GOALS INSTITUTIONALIZED MEANS 1. Conformity + + 2. Innovation + - 3. Ritualism - + 4. Retreatism - - +/- 5. Rebellion

Merton’s Typology of Individual Adaptation explanation of deviant behavior Modes of Adaptation Conformity Innovation Ritualism Retreatism Rebellion Institutionalized Means + + -/+ Cultural Goals + + -/+