India After Harappas Fall India became third great
India
After Harappa’s Fall • India became third great center of classical civilization along with the Mediterranean, China and Middle East (Greece, Persia and Rome) • The new foundations for Indian civilization were laid between 1500 – 500 B. C. E. by the ARYANS – group of Indo-European nomadic peoples moved south across the Hindu Kush Mountain range in northern India • The Aryan peoples gradually advanced eastward from the Indus Valley and southward toward the Deccan Plateau • Eventually, they extended their control throughout all of India ,
Formative Influences • India’s distinctive culture was born of its geography and early historical experience • India was frequently open to influences from the Middle East and even the Mediterranean world • Persian empires spilled over into India at several points, bringing new artistic styles and political concepts • Periodic influences from the Middle East continued after the classical age, forcing India to react and adapt in ways that China largely avoided because they were more isolated
Formative Influences • India’s topography shaped a number of vital features of its civilization • Partially separated from the rest of Asia by northern mountain ranges, notably the HIMALAYAS – mountain region marking the northern border of the Indian subcontinent; site of the Aryan settlements that formed small kingdoms or warrior republics • Important passes through the northwest in particular, linked India to other civilizations in the Middle East • Most important agricultural regions are those along the two rivers: the Indus and the Ganges • Mountainous northern regions, where a herding economy took root • Along the southern coastal rim, an active trading and seafaring economy arose *India’s separate regions help explain not only its economic diversity, but also the racial and ethnic differences that have marked the subcontinent’s
Formative Influences • Much of India is semitropical in climate • In the river valley plains, heat can rise to 120° F during the early summer • Summer also brings torrential MONSOONS – seasonal winds crossing the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia; during summer rainy months • Monsoons vary from year to year, sometimes bringing too little rain or coming too late which causes famine producing drought, or catastrophic floods • Monsoons are vital for farming • Most important agricultural regions are those along the two rivers: the Indus and the Ganges • Mountainous northern regions, where a herding economy took root • Along the southern coastal rim, an active trading and seafaring economy arose *India’s separate regions help explain not only its economic diversity, but also the racial and ethnic differences that have marked the subcontinent’s populations*
Brahman Culture • They Aryans developed a series of oral epics called the ‘Vedas’ and were ultimately written down in SANSKRIT – the sacred and classical Indian language • Composed by various priests, the epics provided a wealth of stories about the gods and the proper standards for human behavior • The characteristics of the Indian caste system also began to take shape • A new relationship between the Aryan invaders and the indigenous people was established • Aryan’s established the VARNAS – clusters of caste groups in Aryan society with four social castes which partly enforced divisions familiar in agricultural societies
India • The Aryans implemented a new social class system, CASTE SYSTEM – a set of rigid social categories that determined a person’s place in society • “Caste” was a term that Portuguese merchants used to describe India’s social groups • Indians call these groups ‘jati’ • There are thousands of jati in India • Based on a person’s occupation and their extended family’s network • In addition to jati, Indian society was also divided four broad major social classes called ‘Varna's’
Indian Varna's • The Brahmans • The top of society • The priestly class • In charge of the religious ceremonies
Indian Varna's • The Kshatriyas (ksha-treeuhz) • The second class in society • Warriors and rulers
Indian Varna's • The Vaisyas (vysh-yuhz) • The third class in society • Seen as the “commoners” • Merchants, craftsmen and traders
Indian Varna's • The Sudras (Soo-druhz) • The fourth class in society • Made up the bulk of society • Peasants, artisans and other laborers • Limited rights
Indian Varna's • The Harijans • Not even considered a part of the Varna's system, and thus, a part of society • Also called “the untouchables” • Made up about 5% of the population • Given menial and degrading tasks that no other Aryan would do • Collect dead bodies • Collecting trash *Not considered human and their very presence was considered harmful to members of other classes*
Rig-Veda • The Rig-Veda was the first Aryan epic and attributed to the rise of the case system to the gods • The Aryans brought to India a religion of many gods and goddesses, who regulated natural forces and possessed human qualities • Gods presided over fire, the sun, death, etc. • Nature was seen as informed not only be specific gods, but also by a more basic divine force • These ideas, expressed in the mystical Upanishads, added greatly to the spiritual power of this early religion and served as the basis for later Hindu beliefs
Hinduism • The Vedas are a collection of hymns and religious ceremonies that were passed down orally through the centuries by Aryan priests and eventually were written down *the basis for the new religion* • Early Hindus believed in the existence of a single force in the universe called Brahman • It was the duty of the individual self (the ataman) to seek to know this ultimate reality • By doing so, the self would merge with Brahman after death • 6 th century B. C. E. , the idea of REINCARNATION – the belief that the individual soul is reborn in a different form after death until it can ultimately reach nirvana • After the cycle of existences in the earthly world, the soul would reach its final goal – union with Brahman
Hinduism • One key part of the process is the idea of KARMA – the force generated by a person’s actions that determines how the person will be reborn in the next life • What people do in their current lives directly determines how the person will be reborn in the next life • With that…*a person’s current status is not an accident – it is the result of a person’s actions in a past existence* • This system of reincarnation provided a religious basis for the rigid class divisions in Indian society • It justified the privileges of those on the higher end of the scale • The concept of reincarnation gave hope to those lower on that ladder because they could hope that if they behaved properly in this life, they would improve their condition in the next life
Hinduism • How does one achieve oneness with God? • YOGA – a method of training designed to lead to the union with the final goal being to leave behind the cycle of earthly life and achieve union with Brahman in a kind of sleepless dream • Most ordinary Indians could not easily relate to this ideal and needed a more concrete form of heavenly salvation • The Hindu religion came to have a number of gods and goddesses with three chief ones: • Brahma – the Creator • Vishnu – the Preserver • Siva – the Destroyer *Hinduism is so intertwined in Indian history and culture, we still it’s affect today in everyday life*
Buddhism • In the 6 th century B. C. E. Buddhism appeared in northern India and became a rival of Hinduism • Siddhartha Gautama • Born around 563 B. C. E. • Claimed that he had awakened and became enlightened • Denied the reality of the material world • Pain, poverty and sorrow that afflict human beings are caused by their attachment to thing of the world • Once people let go of their worldly cares, pain and sorrow can be forgotten…then comes ‘Bodhi’ (wisdom) • Achieving wisdom is a key step in achieving nirvana
Four Noble Truths 1. Ordinary Life is full of suffering 2. Suffering is caused by our desire to satisfy ourselves 3. The way to end suffering is to end desire for selfish goals and to see others as extensions of ourselves 4. Way to end desire is to follow the Middle Path
The Middle Path (The Eightfold Path) 1. Right View – know the Four Noble Truths 2. Right Intention – decide what we really want 3. Right Speech – seek to speak truth and to speak well of others 4. Right Action – Do not kill, do not steal, do not lie, do not be unchaste, do not take drugs or alcohol
The Middle Path (The Eightfold Path) 5. Right Livelihood – do work that uplifts our being 6. Right Effort 7. Right Mindfulness – Keep our minds in control of our senses 8. Right Concentration – Must meditate to see the world in a new way
Dynasties & Political Institutions
New Empires in India • Between 325 B. C. E – 500 C. E. , India was a land of many states, but there were two major empires that created large, unified Indian states: • Mauryan Dynasty: 324 – 183 B. C. E • Gupta Dynasty: 320 – 530 C. E.
The Mauryan Dynasty • The Mauryan Dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya • While it is impossible to know what, if anything the Mauryan dynasty borrowed directly from the Persian political models, they were able to develop a substantial bureaucracy • Ashoka (269 -232 B. C. E. ) • First served as a governor of two provinces • Enjoyed a lavish lifestyle, but also engaged in a study of nature and was strongly influenced by the intense spiritualism of the Brahman religion, but also the rise of Buddhism • Ashoka extended the Mauryan conquests, gaining control of all by the Sothern tip of Indian through incredibly fierce fighting
The Mauryan Dynasty • Flourished under the reign of Ashoka who ruled from 269 – 232 B. C. E. • Considered the greatest ruler in the history of India • After Asoka converted to Buddhism, he used Buddhism to guide his rule, in particular the belief in DHARMA – the caste position and career determined by a person’s birth • Set up hospitals for both people and animals *Sent missionaries to China and other parts of Asia, thus introducing Buddhism to those areas* • After Ashoka, the empire began to fall apart, and regional kingdoms surfaced once again • New invaders, the Kushans, pushed into central India from the northwest
The Gupta Dynasty • The Guptas established a large empire, beginning in 320 C. E. • Unlike the Mauryans, the Guptas did not produce an individual ruler(s) that were as influential as Ashoka, but they had a greater impact • Gupta rulers often preferred to negotiate with local princes and intermarry with their families, which expanded influence without constant fighting • Greatest period of political stability in classical Indian history • Classical India alternated between widespread empires and a network of smaller kingdoms • In 535 C. E. , The Gupta Empire was overturned by a new invasion of nomadic warriors • India then fell back unto disunity until a mew empire arose
Political Institutions • Autocratic kings and emperors dotted the history of classical India, but there were also aristocratic assemblies in some regional states with the power to consult and decide on major issues • One major result of India’s diversity and regionalism is that some of the great empires had a rather shaky base • Mauryan rulers depended heavily on the power of their large armies • Gupta dynastic rulers used various devices to consolidate support • Had been appointed by the gods to rule • Favored Hinduism over Buddhism because the Hindu population believed in such gods *One big issue – no single language was imposed • Even though the Guptas promoted Sanskrit, it became the language of the educated people only and didn’t make a dent in the diversity of more popular, regional languages*
Political Institutions • While we do se the spread of uniform law codes, the fact remains that the political culture of India was not very elaborate • Little formal political theory and few institutions or values other than regionalism that carried through from one period to the next • Indian religion did not stress the importance of politics, even for religious purposes, but rather the preeminence of priests as sources of authority • The limitations on the political traditions – the importance of local units of government and the social relationships under the caste system • India’s caste system steadily became more and more complex • In its origins, the caste system provided a way for India’s various races, the conquerors and conquered to live together without perpetual conflict • Also meant that extensive, outright slavery was avoided
Arts & Sciences • The Guptas supported a vast university center, one of the world’s first • Nalanda attracted students from other parts of Asia as well as Indian Brahmans • Nalanda had over a hundred lecture halls, three large libraries, an astronomical observatory with curriculum ranging from religion, to philosophy, to medicine to agriculture • Classical India produced lively art, although much of it perished under later civilizations • Ashoka sponsored many spherical shrines to Buddha (stupas) and statues to honor Buddha • Under the Guptas, sculpture and painting moved away from realistic portrayals of human form toward more stylized representations
The end of the Guptas: d ecline in India • In 440 C. E. , the nomadic Huns began a series of invasions that gradually reduced the empire’s strength • The Gupta’s pattern of decentralized rule made response to invasion difficult • The quality of the Gupta kings was diminishing, which also contributed to the problem • In localized framework, Indian culture continued to evolve • Buddhism declined steadily (Guptas preferred Hinduism) • Indi’s economic activity also remained strong, although in periods of outright invasion there were new hardships • Islam • Arab armies fighting under the banner of Islam appeared in northern India during the 7 th century, and by the 8 th century Islamic competition began to hit India’s international economic position • Arab traders soon took control of the Indian Ocean and reduced India’s commercial strength
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