Imperial Powers and Decolonization February 27 Imperial Power

Imperial Powers and Decolonization February 27

Imperial Power - Decolonization “. . the colonizing work of France makes it impossible to accept any idea of autonomy for the colonies, or any possibility of development outside of the French empire. Even at a distant date, there will be no selfgovernment in the colonies. ” Brazzaville Conference (1944)

Imperial Power - Decolonization “ “[we] respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and [we] wish to see sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them” Atlantic Charter (1941)

Imperial Power - Decolonization “Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties and so bear ourselves that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth lasts for a thousand years men will still say 'This was their finest hour'. “ Churchill (18 June 1940) “I could have defended the British Empire against anyone except the British people. ” Churchill (n. d. towards end of life)

Imperial Power - Decolonization

Imperial Power - Decolonization Post-war years: Britain and France sought ‘moderate’ change, reform • - looked to reshape colonial relationship through imposition new political frameworks, encouragement political expression (through parties) - sought out moderate leaders as allies - both direction and pace of reform influenced by post-war domestic politics as well as colonial history

Imperial Power - Decolonization Post-War France: left-leaning coalition (including Communist Party) came to power - immediately moved for change in the colonial world - 1946: Union Francaise created ‘commonwealth’ of French Colonies - 20 Africans to be elected representatives to French Assembly, others to serve in new Assembly for the Union [see Cooper in Add’l Rdgs]

Imperial Power - Decolonization Rapidly changed post 1947: - conservative political forces took power in government - favoured businessmen, settlers in African affairs - against the rapid and radical actions predecessors had proposed

Imperial Power - Decolonization - for example: attacked Houphouet-Boigny (Cote d’Ivoire) and regional ‘partie democratique’ (PDCI) for ‘communist’ leanings - several dozen members killed, hundreds imprisoned.

Imperial Power - Decolonization 1956 “Loi Cadre”: - devolved government from Dakar and Brazzaville (centres of former federations) to each of 12 colonies. - context important: imminent independence of British colonies Gold Coast, Nigeria* -crisis in Algeria [for interpretation of influence of British policies/decolonization policy on French, see ‘Deceptive Ends of Empire? ’, Add’l Rdgs - suggested]

Imperial Power - Decolonization 1958: -dramatic changes in France led to fall of fourth republic, recalling of Charles de Gaulle and. . . -formation of Fifth Republic with new Constitution (all related to crisis in Algeria) [see Ending Empires: Revolutions Mar. 8 -10] - ‘Union’ became ‘Community’: France to control finance (common currency), foreign policy, military affairs

Imperial Power - Decolonization - local parliamentary government, flag, anthem devolved to ‘states’ - African colonies provided with referendum allowing them to retain status or become ‘members of the Community’ •

Imperial Power - Decolonization - most chose latter: assured strong continuing influence of France even in ‘de-colonized’ Africa - Reflected concern that African ‘states’ had better chance of success when working within ‘Federation’ with France than if trying to ‘go it alone: acknowledgement of poverty of colonial development on both (French, African) sides [see again Cooper in ‘Add’l Readings]

Imperial Power - Decolonization The French Community (1958): - successor to French Union (from 1946) - included French Guyana, South America

Imperial Power - Decolonization Post-War Britain: first Labour majority government - explicitly Socialist platform: creation of welfare state (e. g. national health programme) - saw Africa as in need of real development: programme of investment

Imperial Power - Decolonization Began speaking of ‘moderate reform’ in colonies like Gold Coast and Nigeria • Nigeria: Richards Commission (1946): - all Nigerian Legislative council: advisory only, with two Nigerian representatives - three regional councils (south east and west, north) - constitution revamped 1951: Macpherson Constitution devolution more power to Federal Government

Imperial Power - Decolonization Gold Coast: - limited political participation encouraged through emergence of political parties (e. g. United Gold Coast Convention formed in 1947) - 1951 Constitution provided for: local elections, ‘assembly’ to work with British Governor General who oversaw ‘self-governance’ of colony - key areas (military, foreign affairs, monetary base) remained in British hands [more on Gold Coast in ‘Case Study]

Imperial Power - Decolonization British Colonies: Gold Coast (left), Nigeria (right)

Imperial Power - Decolonization 1950 s saw rapid escalation of reforms: - ‘returns’ on economic investment slow to be realized: disappointment - Labour government and socialist experiment shortlived: Conservatives returned to power - attempts to ‘hold on to empire’ under Churchill failed

Imperial Power - Decolonization Will to continue colonialism waned: [hence Churchill’s ‘quotation’ with which lecture introduced] - Independence of India (1947) reflected shifting ‘mood’ of British public - acceleration of Domestic reform also influenced by events in British settler colonies East Africa (Kenya: “Mau Mau” revolt) [see ‘Mau Mau’ Readings, Resources] - Both helped shape Policy towards Africa

Imperial Power - Decolonization Processes, domestic politics different: but outcome was Decolonization British: began with Britain’s Gold Coast-to-Ghana in 1957 followed by. . . French: ‘Community’ Referendum 1958 - debate continues among historians as to most important factors shaping both process and politics

Imperial Power - Decolonization ‘Push’ factors from Africa, Africans: examples - protest riots like Veteran’s March 1948 in Gold Coast [“Rise of Nationalism”, video in Discussion Rdgs] - labour strikes like Dakar-Niger Railway Workers 1947 -48 [“Gods bits of Wood”, Add’l Rdgs Feb. 13] - racial violence like Nyasaland (1957) and Kenya (1952 -60) [“Mau Mau” Revolt] - Wars of independence like Algeria (1954 -60) [Case Study, Mar. 8 -10]

Imperial Power - Decolonization International factors: ‘Africa’ in the Global postwar picture - Pan-Africanism, 1945 Congress [Discussion Feb. 15 -17] - Independence of India [1947] - US interests in acquiring ‘access’ to Africa in context of. . . - Cold War [lecture Mar. 2; Case Studies Congo; Southern Africa]

Imperial Power - Decolonization Pan-Africanism: - anti-colonial stance, rhetoric of 5 th Pan African conference (1945) drew on Socialist ideology [Discussion, Rdgs. Feb. 15 -17] - reinforced equation of ‘capitalism = colonialism = the West’ By 1950 s, Pan-Africanism influenced almost ALL nationalist leaders

Imperial Power - Decolonization Late 1940 s, 1950 s: Pan-Africanists led by Kwame Nkrumah – shift to purely ‘African’ focus -argued for independent West African Federation as first step towards a United States of Africa (long-term legacy: African Union) - following Ghana’s independence (1957), organized Conference of Independent States (“All Africa” Conference) 1958 [Video ‘Rise of Nationalism’ – end of ‘Gold Coast’ section]

Imperial Power - Decolonization Independence of India: profound effect on Britain - unclear to what degree reflected’ mood or ‘shaped’ it but … - had impact on how Britain saw its other colonies - Churchill saw it as ‘beginning of end of Empire’

Imperial Power - Decolonization Independence of India: profound effect on Africa - if Britain’s ‘Jewel in the Crown’ was to be independent. . . surely there could be no reason for denying the same to Africans!!

Imperial Power - Decolonization Creation of United Nations: role of United States - reflected US interest in colonial world, new powerful international position - Atlantic Charter was also way to open up continent for its own interests - post-war: stronger economically, politically than Britain and France - well-positioned to ‘push’ for Decolonization

Imperial Power - Decolonization Also Became Issue of ‘Cold War’: - not only US but Soviet Union saw Africa as ‘opening up’ to ideological, financial influence/investment

Imperial Power - Decolonization Soviet Competition: - successfully linked: ‘capitalism = colonialism = imperialism’ in political rhetoric (resonated with Pan. African discourse) - offered ‘Socialist Alternative’: attractive to those seeking freedom, advantages so far denied by colonial masters

Imperial Power - Decolonization Many post-WWII leaders engaged with ideas of socialism, communism (often not distinguished) Nkrumah: “In order to be able to carry out this resistance to neocolonialism at every point, Positive action requires to be armed with an ideology, an ideology which, vitalizing it, and operating through a mass party with a regenerative concept of the world and life…

Imperial Power - Decolonization … In order that this ideology should be comprehensive, in order that it should light up every aspect of the life of our people, in order that it should affect the total interest of our society, establishing a continuity with our past, it must be socialist in form and in content and be embraced by a mass party. “ • [Nkrumah, “Turning away from the West? ”]

Imperial Power - Decolonization Amilcal Cabral (Portuguese Guinea): - openly questioned ‘real’ aims of imperialist countries (European and American) - in agreeing to African independence in context of emerging Cold War, were they not trying to prevent …

Imperial Power - Decolonization “…the enlargement of the socialist camp, [to] liberate the reactionary forces in our countries stifled by colonialism, and enable these forces to ally themselves with the international bourgeoisie [middle class]? ” [Davidson, Modern Africa, p. 104]

Imperial Power - Decolonization Socialist and Pan-Africanist goal: - help ALL colonies transcend colonial boundaries, work to unite continent - Nkrumah: no country truly free until ALL colonies have freedom (Independence Day Speech)

Imperial Power - Decolonization Concluding Summary: To understand decolonization as the consequence of one factor – or indeed as the same process across the continent – would be to oversimplify a critical moment in the creation of contemporary Africa [‘Wind of Change…’, 2011 in Add’l Rdgs]

Imperial Power - Decolonization -to underestimate the role of domestic (European) politics, in turn influenced BOTH by what was happening in Africa AND by what was happening elsewhere on the international scene would be a mistake… [‘Wind of change…’, 2006 in Add’l Rdgs]

Imperial Power - Decolonization - yet to see what was happening on the local Africa scene ONLY as ‘irritations’ or ‘momentary provocations’ would also be to misunderstand the complexity of decolonization dynamics.

Imperial Power - Decolonization - we need to look more closely at the nature of those ‘issues’, both in West Africa AND in the Central, Eastern, Southern contexts that draw the ‘white settler’ factor into the mix - this will extend our analysis to Portugal, Belgium and South Africa, providing yet additional views of the decolonization process