HUMAN EVOLUTION the process by which human beings

HUMAN EVOLUTION - the process by which human beings developed on Earth from now-extinct primates.

Evolution refers to change over time, or transformation over time. Evolution assumes that all natural forms arose from their ancestors and adapted over time to their environments. There are numerous ways in which evolution occurs, the most noted are Natural Selection and Adaptation.

Carolus Linnaeus – developed a system of classification know as “taxonomy” – the modern system for classifying plants & animals that reflect natural relationships (ie. Mammals, Reptiles) Joseph Banks – sailed with James Cook and collected previously unknown plants & animals; used Linnaeus’ taxonomy for classification Gregor Mendel – a botanist, considered the founder of modern genetics, concluded that characteristics are passed down from generation to generation

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck – a zoologist, developed a number of theories on how animals species develop over time; from simple forms into more complex (ie. Giraffes and long necks for food) Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882) – the one everyone knows for theory of evolution; gradual change over generations and survival of the fittest (natural selection) - when his works were first published they created a huge controversy “is it from your mother’s side or your father’s side that you are descended from apes”

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - all life is related and has descended from a common ancestor: the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the flowers -- all related. In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an organism's genetic code, the beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid survival -a process known as "natural selection. " These beneficial mutations are passed on to the next generation. Over time, beneficial mutations accumulate and the result is an entirely different organism (not just a variation of the original, but an entirely different creature).

“Natural selection acts only by taking advantage of slight successive variations; she can never take a great and sudden leap, but must advance by short and sure, though slow steps. “ – Charles Darwin Natural selection acts to preserve and accumulate minor advantageous genetic mutations. Suppose a member of a species developed a functional advantage (it grew wings and learned to fly). Its offspring would inherit that advantage and pass it on to their offspring. The inferior (disadvantaged) members of the same species would gradually die out, leaving only the superior (advantaged) members of the species. Natural selection is the preservation of a functional advantage that enables a species to compete better in the wild. Natural selection is the naturalistic equivalent to domestic breeding. Over the centuries, human breeders have produced dramatic changes in domestic animal populations by selecting individuals to breed. Breeders eliminate undesirable traits gradually over time. Similarly, natural selection eliminates inferior species gradually over time.

Fossil - The mineralized bone of an extinct animal. The remains of past life-forms. Primate - Large-brained, mostly treedwelling mammals with three-dimensional color vision and grasping hands. Humans are primates. Hominid - Modern human beings and our ancestors, generally defined as the primates who habitually walk erect. Technically, the members of the family Hominoidea.

Australopithecus 1. 5 – 4 million years ago Homo Neanderthalis 35, 000 – 85, 000 years ago Homo Habilis 1. 75 million years Cro-Magnon ago 10, 000 - 35, 000 years ago Homo Erectus 300, 000 -1. 5 million years ago 10, 000 - present years ago (but not always in class) Homo Sapiens

Australopithecus - A genus of the family Hominoidea characterized by small-brained hominids with mixed fruit/vegetable diet. Homo - A genus of the family Hominoidea characterized by large-brained hominids with an omnivorous diet

1. 5 – 4 million years ago First fossils found in 1924, a young child Small brain capacity 450 - 500 cm 3 Large brows and flat forehead Mary Leakey discovered a complete skull 1959 in Tanzania Donald Johanson in 1974 discovered the remains of the most complete specimen ever found – known as “Lucy” They may have used primitive tools, but little evidence

One of the earliest of modern man's ancestors, Australopithecus afarensis lived between 4 million and 3. 2 million years ago in eastern Africa. Australopithecus africanus lived between 3 and 2. 3 million years ago mostly in South Africa

(below) A single footprint of Australopithecus afarensis (above) A single footprint of Australopithecus afarensis (top), left some 3. 5 million years ago at Laetoli, Tanzania, shows a striking similarity to a single footprint of a habitually barefoot modern human being from Peru

1. 75 million years ago The handy human being first discovered by Louis Leakey in 1964 in Tanzania Had a larger brain Australopithecus about capacity 750 - 1225 cm 3 Had large, sharp canine teeth and smaller rear teeth than Australopithecus It probably used tools for skinning animals and powerful arms suggest some time spend living in trees

300, 000 -1. 5 million years ago Eugene Dubois discovered homo erectus on the island of Java At first he thought it was an “upright ape” but later changed because of human similarities Remains have been found in China (called Peking), Tanzania and Algeria Fair sized brain about capacity 750 - 1225 cm 3 This species learned to use fire for warmth, how to co-operate with others to hunt animals and how to design stone tools such as axes

35, 000 – 85, 000 years ago Discovered accidentally by quarry workers in Germany 1856 Thomas Huxley used the discovery to support Charles Darwin’s Theories Neanderthalis has a similar brain to ours a capacity 1400 - 1600 cm 3 It may have been possible for it communicate through speech Practiced many social behaviours such as burying its dead in graves Produced a wide variety of tools such as knifes, scrapers and chisels

10, 000 - 35, 000 years ago Again by accident in 1868 in France by road workers The site not only had fossils but the artifacts of a community, including tools and shelters Later remains were discovered in Italy, France and Czech Rep. Highly developed culture, decorated hand tools, ornaments and cave paintings Very good hunters, worked in teams

10, 000 years ago - present Homo sapiens named “wise humankind” – yet to be proven Large brain capacity 1450 -1600 cm 3 , power of communication through speech Developed sophisticated tools of stone and iron Also advanced cave painting to new levels Stonehenge a prehistoric monument in southern England originates from this period – sense of religion & supernatural Species has continued to change from nomadic to settlement/agricultural life around 5000 years ago

STONE HENGE It was used as a religious or ceremonial center by the prehistoric inhabitants of the region.

Bipedalism (moving/walking on 2 legs) Hand Functions Cranial Capacity (size of skull – determines brain size) Tool Design Tooth Size Communication - Speech, Language, Art

Several differences allow the human being to walk erect on two legs with a striding gait rather than move in a knuckle-walking fashion like the gorilla – one example includes: in the legs the femurs (thighbones) are relatively long and are set farther apart at the hips than they are at the knees.

The increase in hominin cranial capacity over time.

Stone tools of the Acheulean industry, used by Homo erectus and early modern humans, and of the Mousterian industry, used by Neanderthals. (Top, left to right) Mid-Acheulean bifacial hand ax and Acheulean bandedflint hand ax. (Centre) Acheulean hand tool. (Bottom, left to right) Mousterian bifacial hand ax, scraper, and bifacial point.

Dagger Carvings – Stonehenge Horse in world's oldest painted prehistoric cave, 15, 000 -10, 000 BC Lascaux, France