Holt African American History Chapter 10 Building Background
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Building Background After World War II, black soldiers who had risked their lives to serve their country came home to face racial discrimination. Such treatment angered many black veterans. “I paid my dues over there, ” said James Hicks, “and I’m not going to take this anymore over here. ” Many black veterans joined with other African Americans to push harder for equality. Their efforts helped launch a civil rights movement that soon swept the nation.
Holt African American History Chapter 10 White Resistance Continued Segregation • Time of economic prosperity for many white Americans; few black Americans shared new wealth • Strong white resistance to black equality remained; particularly evident in the South • White citizens used unfair laws, fear, and violence to try to keep black citizens from voting or from standing up for their rights • Segregation major barrier to equality for blacks • Custom and laws separated black and white Americans in schools, housing, and jobs • Segregation most rigid in the South • Jim Crow laws forced blacks to use “colored only” facilities • 1896 Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson established the “separate but equal” doctrine legalizing segregation • Separate facilities rarely equal • One glaring example of inequality —the nation’s black schools • New generation of black leaders began to fight segregation in education
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Challenging “Separate but Equal” • NAACP lawyers won a series of court cases • One victory was against the University of Missouri – Lloyd Gaines refused admittance to law school because of his race; instead the university offered to help pay for Gaines to go to an out-of-state law school – 1938 Gaines v. Canada; states had to provide equal educational facilities within their borders – Each state had to provide separate black schools—including law schools—or admit black students to its white schools • Victory a major step toward ending segregation in higher education; but the University of Missouri created a black law school in St. Louis • Gaines never attended; after disappearing in Chicago he was presumed murdered • Gaines’s disappearance is an unsolved case
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Heman Sweatt • 1946 another black student denied access to a law school • Lower court ruled state of Texas to either establish a “separate but equal” law school or the University of Texas to admit Sweatt • A makeshift law school was created, but did not even come close to being equal to the university’s prestigious all-white law school Sweatt v. Painter • NAACP appealed; in 1950 Marshall argued the case before the U. S. Supreme Court • In Sweatt v. Painter the Supreme Court ruled University of Texas black law school was inferior to its white law school; Court ruled that separate law schools hurt the education of black law students • Victory forced nation’s graduate and professional schools to integrate
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Brown v. Board of Education Key Court Cases • 1954 Thurgood Marshall went before the U. S. Supreme Court with a case that forever changed education in the United States • Combination of court cases challenging the constitutionality of segregated public schools Neighborhood Schools • Went by name of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas • NAACP members tried to enroll children in white neighborhood schools; schools refused to admit the black students, who had to attend black schools farther away Arguments • Heard over two-year period • Thurgood Marshall provided research suggesting segregation harmful to students’ self-image • His research helped influence the Court’s final decision Unanimous Ruling in 1954 • Brown v. Board of Education, the Court ruled the “separate but equal” doctrine in the nation’s public schools unconstitutional and therefore racial segregation in public schools was illegal
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Crisis in Little Rock School Integration Begins • 21 states had laws segregating public schools; mixed reaction to the Brown decision in these states • A few white leaders agreed to start integrating public schools; other white leaders strongly opposed school integration • In Virginia several white officials pledged to join forces to block school integration at all levels • The Virginia legislature passed laws forcing the closure of any school that integrated • Helped white students attend allwhite private schools “All Deliberate Speed” • By the end of 1954 only three southern school districts had desegregated • In 1955 the U. S. Supreme Court ordered public schools to desegregate “with all deliberate speed” • Demonstrations against integration took place in many parts of the South • In the end, President Eisenhower and the federal government took action after a crisis in Little Rock, Arkansas
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Little Rock Nine • Little Rock planned to desegregate its public schools one at a time – Fall 1957 the board allowed nine black students to attend the city’s white Central High School; students became known as the Little Rock Nine – The governor called out the Arkansas National Guard to keep the nine students from entering the white high school, claiming the action was necessary to protect the school from white extremists who had threatened violence • On September 4, 1957, the first day of school, some local ministers brought eight of the nine black students to Central High School • While an angry white crowd confronted the students, the National Guard barred the way and refused to let the students enter • The ninth black student, 15 -year-old Elizabeth Eckford arrived at the school alone and was surrounded by a hostile white crowd • When the National Guard turned her away from the school, someone in the crowd began yelling, “Lynch her!”
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Murder of Emmett Till • Blacks remained second-class citizens to many, particularly in the South • Nationwide attention focused with the 1955 murder of Emmett Till – Till, a 14 -year-old boy from Chicago, had gone to Mississippi to visit his great uncle; not knowing the South’s strict racial etiquette – Soon after arriving in Mississippi, Till and other black teenagers went to a small grocery owned by a young couple, Roy and Carolyn Bryant – Till made a comment to Carolyn Bryant and she took offense • Historians do not know for certain what Till said but her husband found out about the incident • Four days later, Roy Bryant and his half brother kidnapped Till in the middle of the night and murdered him • Emmett Till’s mother insisted on an open casket so people could see what had been done to her son • Till’s senseless murder—and his killers’ acquittal by an all-white jury— awakened more Americans to the racism that southern blacks faced
Holt African American History Chapter 10
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Building Background During the late 1940 s and early 1950 s, civil rights activists successfully ended segregation in the military, public schools, and some professional sports. These victories were just the beginning, however. As the drive for equality gained momentum, civil rights activists fought segregation in other areas of society, and a civil rights movement developed.
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Protesting Segregated Transportation The Supreme Court’s Brown decision striking down the “separate but equal” doctrine in public schools had a major impact on American society. However, segregation continued to be enforced in many other public places and facilities in the South. One major area that remained segregated was public transportation. Baton Rouge Bus Boycott • Early 1950 s civil rights leaders decided to organize boycotts of city buses • Bus system in Baton Rouge reserved the first 10 seats for white passengers and the rest of the seats for black passengers; black passengers had to stand even if a “white” seat was available • If a white passenger could not find a seat, a black passenger had to stand to let the white passenger sit • T. J. Jemison, a black minister, decided to oppose the bus system’s practice of reserved seating; speaking out against the practice • Baton Rouge council offered compromise—black passengers could sit in any empty seat as long as no white passengers were standing
Holt African American History Drivers on Strike • Baton Rouge bus drivers refused to enforce the new law • Drivers went on strike when the bus company pressured them • Louisiana attorney general struck down the Baton Rouge law, stating that it violated state laws enforcing segregation • Bus drivers went back to work; blacks in Baton Rouge outraged • In protest, Jemison and Raymond Scott, a black tailor, organized boycott of the bus system • The next day, African Americans had stopped riding buses Chapter 10 Boycott • Boycott participants organized carpools or walked, pooling their money to pay for gasoline • Boycott leaders reached a new compromise with city officials • The first two seats on city buses would be reserved for white passengers, and the back row would be reserved for black passengers • People of any race could sit in between • Most agreed to the compromise; the Baton Rouge bus boycott had succeeded after only five days
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Montgomery Bus Boycott Similar Boycott • 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama • Montgomery bus system required black passengers to sit in a “colored section” in the back; not allowed to share rows with white passengers • Row of black passengers to stand so one white passenger could sit NAACP Involved • Rosa Parks boarded a city bus and sat in the first row of the “colored section”; Parks refused give her seat to white passengers • She was arrested and taken to jail • The NAACP had found its test case One-Day Boycott • NAACP called for a one-day Montgomery bus boycott; 90 percent of riders participated • Black leaders extended the boycott and formed the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) King on Board • Martin Luther King Jr. , a 26 -yearold black Baptist minister was chosen to lead the MIA • An experienced activist, King had gained a reputation as a powerful speaker
Holt African American History Chapter 10
Holt African American History Chapter 10 No Quick Victory • The organizers hoped for a quick victory, but city officials refused to negotiate • Boycott participants did not give up; boycott leaders organized a carpool system • For more than a year, boycotters carpooled, took taxis, rode bicycles, or simply walked • King later recalled, “We came to see that, in the long run, it is more honorable to walk in dignity than ride in humiliation. ” • Local police harassed and arrested carpool drivers, and local insurance agents canceled some boycotters’ auto insurance policies
Holt African American History Chapter 10 National Attention • A few white opponents even resorted to violence • King received hate mail and threatening phone calls; his house and the houses of others were bombed • Such events helped the boycott gain national attention; other African Americans began staging similar boycotts • Meanwhile, the NAACP filed a lawsuit in federal court challenging segregation on city buses – The case eventually went before the U. S. Supreme Court, which ruled in 1956 that segregation on city buses was unconstitutional – The ruling overturned Montgomery’s bus segregation laws • A month after the ruling, King and other boycott leaders rode Montgomery’s first integrated city bus
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Martin Luther King Jr. The Road to Montgomery • Born into a middle-class family in Atlanta, Georgia, in 1929 • His father was a college-educated Baptist preacher, and young King received a solid education; went to Morehouse College, a historically black college in Atlanta • After graduating in 1948, King attended Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania, earning a degree in theology in 1951 and then obtained a doctorate from Boston University in 1955 • While in Boston, King met a young woman named Coretta Scott • They married in 1953; had two sons and two daughters • In 1954 King became pastor of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery • Joined the NAACP; became active in working for civil rights
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Nonviolent Protest The Strategy of Nonviolence • Mohandas Gandhi helped lead India’s struggle for independence from Great Britain; model for nonviolent protest • Inspired by nonviolent Hindu traditions as well as by writer Henry David Thoreau; rejected all violence • Led protesters in peacefully disobeying the law; by exposing themselves to harm, the protesters hoped to expose injustice • Gandhi believed approach best way to achieve change in a society in which other people held most of the power • King and several other civil rights leaders agreed • “Violence ends by defeating itself”—Martin Luther King Jr. , Strides toward Freedom, 1958
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Implementation Practitioners The Sit-in Movement • James Lawson, a black minister, key civil rights leader • Lawson visited India to study Gandhi’s teachings; began conducting SCLC workshops on nonviolent protest methods • Held workshops in Nashville and on black colleges campuses across the South • Workshops trained activists how to protect themselves; remain peaceful in the face of violence • Activists trained included future leaders in the civil rights movement • One popular method of nonviolent protest was the sit-in, a demonstration in which protesters sit down in a location and refuse to leave • Since the 1940 s civil rights activists used sit-ins to challenge segregation in both public places and private businesses • Like public facilities, many private businesses in the South were segregated • Some did not serve black customers at all
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Building Background Nonviolent boycotts and sit-ins gained the civil rights movement national attention. Although not all of the protests were successful, many Americans were impressed with the courage and dignity of the black and white activists who took part in them. As public support for the movement grew, civil rights activists turned to new challenges in the struggle to gain full equality for African Americans.
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Fighting Discrimination on the Road Among the many areas of society that remained segregated was interstate bus and train travel. Although they could ride buses and trains, blacks endured discrimination on cross-country journeys. Riding for Freedom • Segregation in interstate bus travel prohibited since 1946; unofficial segregation continued in the South • Black passengers expected to sit in reserved areas and give up their seats; had to use separate facilities at interstate bus stations • Civil rights activists from Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), a northern group founded in 1942 by James Farmer and others, decided to protest • In 1947 CORE sponsored the Journey of Reconciliation, a protest of black and white men who rode a bus through the Upper South • The activists arrested and jailed several times; in North Carolina, black riders sentenced to 30 days on a chain gang; white riders, whom the judge said had “upset the customs of the South, ” given harsher 90 day sentence
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Integration of Bus Stations National Attention • 1960 U. S. Supreme Court ordered integration of interstate bus stations and facilities • Many white southerners refused to follow the order; CORE staged another protest to draw attention to situation • 1961 CORE sent a group on Freedom Rides—bus trips through the South during which black and white activists tried to use segregated facilities • On May 4, a group left D. C. on two buses bound for Louisiana • Violence met the Freedom Riders as soon as they entered Alabama • White mob firebombed one of the buses and beat the riders • The incident on front pages of newspapers nationwide • Freedom Riders on the other bus in Birmingham attacked by group with bats and metal pipes • Severely injured one rider • CORE riders unable to continue, second group from SNCC completed the Freedom Rides • Knowing they risked death, some riders made out their wills or wrote farewell letters
Holt African American History Chapter 10 The Drive for Voting Rights Limited Political Power • True equality required power in the voting booth • Although blacks had right to vote, unjust laws and threats often kept southern blacks from exercising this right or registering to vote Some Progress • Civil Rights Act of 1957; created Justice Department division to investigate, enforce voting rights • Federal district judges authorized to appoint officials to register voters in areas where voting rights were being denied Requirements • Voting records kept for 22 months; federal investigators could determine if law had been violated • Federal government had authority to prosecute anyone caught interfering with voting rights Violations • Despite this new law, voting rights violations continued in the South • In Mississippi almost half of the state’s population was black; only 5 percent of the eligible black adults in the state were registered to vote
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Targeting Mississippi • 1961 members of SNCC decided to try and improve situation with a voter registration drive; Robert Moses, a black SNCC leader, went to Mc. Comb in July to start • After a month, Moses had convinced only six blacks to register to vote; modest success angered white residents • Moses was beaten and jailed; violence increased when Henry Lee, a farmer who had been helping, was killed • Jury ruled killing in self-defense; SNCC workers and local high school students held a march in protest • More mob violence erupted and police arrested marchers • Moses finally left Mc. Comb after registering fewer than 24 new voters • Greater progress in black voting rights would have to wait several more years
Holt African American History Chapter 10 Integrating Higher Education • The NAACP continued its legal campaign to integrate schools; in the 1960 s NAACP lawyers focused on higher education • In the 1960 s NAACP lawyers began to focus on enforcing integration in higher education. • Two confrontations at universities in Mississippi and Alabama soon helped break down more school barriers • In September 1962 the University of Mississippi refused to admit a black man named James Meredith because of his race; NAACP obtained a federal court order requiring the university to enroll Meredith • On September 30 the young black man arrived at the campus accompanied by federal marshals for protection; riot broke out on the campus • President John F. Kennedy decided to send in army troops to restore order; riot quickly ended when troops arrived, two dead and hundreds more injured • Meanwhile, Meredith enrolled and, with the protection of marshals, began attending university classes; graduated in 1963
Holt African American History Chapter 10 University of Alabama • Another confrontation on the campus of the University of Alabama • A federal judge had ordered the university to admit two black students, Vivian Malone and James Hood • On June 11, 1963, Alabama governor George C. Wallace defiantly stood in front of the enrollment building to block entry – National Guard troops walked alongside the two students as they approached Governor Wallace – Aware of the resistance they might meet, the soldiers had practiced how to physically lift and remove the governor if necessary – The action was not needed • After making a short speech about states’ rights, Wallace let the black students pass • Civil rights leaders considered the events at the two universities to be major progress
Holt African American History Chapter 10 The March on Washington • In response to the events in Birmingham, President Kennedy addressed the nation on July 11, 1963. “The fires of frustration and discord are burning, . . . North and South”; Kennedy announced that he would ask for sweeping civil rights legislation • Just hours later, a black NAACP officer named Medgar Evers was murdered in front of his home in Jackson, Mississippi; the slaying horrified many Americans • KKK member Byron De La Beckwith tried; set free • King and other civil rights leaders decided to hold a massive, peaceful rally in Washington, D. C. ; hoped to put pressure on Congress to pass the civil rights bill Kennedy had proposed • March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom took place on the National Mall on August 28, 1963 • Included 200, 000 people of all races, backgrounds, and ages
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