Historical Linguistics 1 Sound Change 2 Morphological Change

Historical Linguistics • • 1. Sound Change 2. Morphological Change 3. Syntactic Change 4. Semantic Change

2. Morphological Change • Old English • cow (sg), kine (pl) – alternation • stone (sg), stones (pl) – suffixation of [z] • Change: cow, cows – suffixation of [z]

• Proportional Analogy • => Generalization of a relationship • a: b : : c: x • Relationship = N: N+[-z] • stone: stones : : cows

• Regular > Irregular • (suffixation > alternation) • Older form: dive (Pres), dived (Past) • drive: drove : : dive: dove

• Relationship is the key. • • Verbs sing: sang: sung ring: rang: rung bring: brang: brung – (overgeneralization in children’s speech) • But nouns • king(sg): kang(pl)

Paradigm Leveling • Latin Rhotacism • /s/ > [r] / V_V • rūsal > rural • opesa > opera • corposeal > corporeal • Remnants of [s]: rustic, opus, corpus

• Paradigm Leveling • => Reduce irregularity created by regular sound change • Rhotacized • Nom: honos > honos • Gen: honos-is > honor-is • Acc: honos-em > honor-em

• Paradigm Leveled • Nom: • Gen: • Acc: honos-is honos-em > honor-is > honor-em

3. Syntactic Change • Old English OV order in embedded and coordinate clauses • • and • O • his S Eraclyus swurd sword sona immediately V ateah drew

• English Word Order Change: SOV > SVO • Phrase structure rules: • S = NP VP • VP = NP V > VP = V NP

• Old English verb movement in main clauses • Adv • þā • then • S • se • the V ongeat perceived cyning king O þæt. that

• • Phrase Structure Rules S = NP Aux VP VP = NP V S’ = _ S • Movement • Move V to _ in [S’ _ S]

• S’ • V S • NP VP • _ NP • perceived the king that

• Old English: Move V to _ in [S’ _ S] • Modern English Questions • Move Aux to _ in [S’ _ S] • She has left. • Has she left?

• • S’ _ S • NP Aux VP • she has left

• • S’ Aux S • NP • has she __ VP left

• Modern English: Aux movement only • Did she leave? • *Left she. • => Insert auxiliary verb

• Old > Modern English • 1. Head-final VP > Head-initial VP • (VP = NP V > VP = V NP) • 2. Move V to _ in [S’ _ S] • > Move Aux to _ in [S’ _ S]

4. Semantic Change • Extension (Widening) • dog, bird – specific type > general class • salary < salārium (Lat) – ‘allotment of salt’ > ‘wages’

• Reduction (Narrowing) • hound, fowl – general class > specific type • deer – ‘animal’ > specific type of animal • girl – ‘child’ > ‘female child’

• Metaphorical Extension • broadcast < ‘spread seeds’ • French feuille – ‘leaf’ > ‘sheet of paper’ • Spanish firma – ‘fix, make firm’ > ‘signature’

• • • Elevation knight < ‘youth’, ‘servant’ Japanese samurai < saburafu ‘to serve’ pretty < ‘crafty, sly’ nice < ‘foolish’

• • Degredation spinster < ‘one who spins’ villain < French ‘farm worker’ disease < ‘discomfort’