Herbert Hoover Financing Relief Efforts 1931 Main Points

Herbert Hoover, Financing Relief Efforts (1931) Main Points: 1. The best way to help people during times of national difficulty is through mutual self-help and voluntary giving. My own conviction is strongly that if we break down this sense of responsibility of individual generosity to individual and mutual self-help in the country in time of national difficulty and if we start appropriations of this character we have not only impaired something infinitely valuable in the life of the American people but have struck at the roots of self-government. (p. 109)

Herbert Hoover, Financing Relief Efforts (1931) 2. Federal aid to the hungry and poor encourages expectations of future paternal care and weakens Americans’ self-reliant character. It also weakens Americans’ willingness to help each other and give to each other, and thus enfeebles the bonds of common brotherhood. Quotation of President Grover Cleveland by President Herbert Hoover: The friendliness and charity of our countrymen can always be relied upon to relieve their fellow citizens in misfortune. This has been repeatedly and quite lately demonstrated. Federal aid in such cases encouraged the expectation of paternal care on the part of the Government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character, while it prevents the indulgence among our people of that kindly sentiment and conduct which strengthens the bonds of a common brotherhood. (p. 110) President Herbert Hoover: The help being daily extended by neighbors, by local and national agencies, by municipalities, by industry and a great multitude of organizations throughout the country today is many times any appropriation yet proposed. The opening of the doors of the Federal Treasury is likely to stifle this giving and thus destroy far more resources than the proposed charity from the Federal Government. (p. 110)

Herbert Hoover, Financing Relief Efforts (1931)

Herbert Hoover, Financing Relief Efforts (1931) Main Points: 1. The best way to help people during times of national difficulty is through mutual self-help and voluntary giving. My own conviction is strongly that if we break down this sense of responsibility of individual generosity to individual and mutual self-help in the country in time of national difficulty and if we start appropriations of this character we have not only impaired something infinitely valuable in the life of the American people but have struck at the roots of self-government. (p. 109)

Herbert Hoover, Financing Relief Efforts (1931) 2. Federal aid to the hungry and poor encourages expectations of future paternal care and weakens Americans’ self-reliant character. It also weakens Americans’ willingness to help each other and give to each other, and thus enfeebles the bonds of common brotherhood. Quotation of President Grover Cleveland by President Herbert Hoover: The friendliness and charity of our countrymen can always be relied upon to relieve their fellow citizens in misfortune. This has been repeatedly and quite lately demonstrated. Federal aid in such cases encouraged the expectation of paternal care on the part of the Government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character, while it prevents the indulgence among our people of that kindly sentiment and conduct which strengthens the bonds of a common brotherhood. (p. 110) President Herbert Hoover: The help being daily extended by neighbors, by local and national agencies, by municipalities, by industry and a great multitude of organizations throughout the country today is many times any appropriation yet proposed. The opening of the doors of the Federal Treasury is likely to stifle this giving and thus destroy far more resources than the proposed charity from the Federal Government. (p. 110)

Roosevelt consciously abandoned the term “progressive” and chose instead to employ “liberal” to define himself and his administration. In so doing, he transformed “liberalism” from a shorthand for weak government and laissez-faire economics into belief in an activist, socially conscious state, an alternative both to socialism and to unregulated capitalism. (Foner, The Story of American Freedom, pp. 201 -204. ) Redefining Liberalism Freedom, Hoover insisted, meant unfettered economic opportunity for the enterprising individual. Far from being an element of liberty, the quest for economic security was turning Americans into “lazy parasites” dependent on the state. For the remainder of his life, Hoover continued to call himself a “liberal, ” even though, he charged, the word had been “polluted and raped of all its real meanings. ” (Foner, The Story of American Freedom, p. 205. )

Socialist Party Platform (1932) Norman Mattoon Thomas

Socialist Party Platform (1932) Norman Mattoon Thomas (1884 -1968) • Took over leadership of the Socialist Party after the death of Eugene Debs in 1926. • Was the party’s presidential candidate six times. • Polled his highest vote in 1932 with 880, 000 votes. • Some members of the socialist party were: W. E. B. Du. Bois, Margaret Sanger, and Helen Keller. “Democratic Socialism, " is defined by the Socialist Party as “a political and economic system with freedom and equality for all, so that people may develop to their fullest potential in harmony with others. ” The party further states that it is “committed to full freedom of speech, assembly, press, and religion and to a multi-party system” and that the ownership and control of the production and distribution of goods “should be democratically controlled public agencies, cooperatives, or other collective groups. ” (source: http: //www. u-s-history. com/pages/h 1669. html)

Socialist Party Platform (1932) Main Points 1. Socialist feel there are many flaws with the capitalist system, which is now in the process of breaking down, resulting in human suffering. “We are facing a breakdown of the capitalist system…Unemployment and poverty are inevitable products of the present system. ” 2. The Socialist Party believes that workers are exploited by a capitalist economy. “Under capitalism the few own our industries. The many do the work. The wage earners and farmers are compelled to give a large part of the product of their labor to the few. The many in the factories, mines, shops, offices and on the farms obtain but a scanty income and are able to buy back only a part of the goods that can be produced in such abundance by our mass industries. ” (http: //www. u-s-history. com/pages/h 1669. html)

Socialist Party Platform (1932) 3. By voting for the Socialist Party you can help remove the struggles that the capitalist system has created. “The Socialist Party is to-day the one democratic party of the worker whose program would remove the causes of class struggles, class antagonisms, and social evils inherent in the capitalist system. ” “[The Socialist Party] proposes to transfer the principal industries of the country from private ownership and autocratic, cruelly inefficient management to social ownership and democratic control…It proposes the following measures…” The American people will never knowingly adopt Socialism; but under the name of liberalism, they will adopt every fragment of the Socialist program until America will one day be a Socialist nation without knowing how it happened.

The Socialist Party Platform of 1932 Programs Adopted by the Roosevelt Administration A federal appropriation of $5, 000, 000 for immediate relief for those in need to supplement state and local appropriations. Federal Emergency Relief Act (FERA), May 12, 1933 A federal appropriation of $5, 000, 000 for public works and roads, reforestation, slum clearance, and decent homes for the workers by the federal government, states, and cities. Public Works Administration (PWA), established by the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), May 17, 1933 Civilian Conservation Corps (Reforestation) Act (CCC), March 31, 1933 Home Owners Loan Corp. (HOLC), established by the Home Owners Refinancing Act, April 13, 1933 Other agencies Legislation providing for the acquisition of land, buildings, and equipment necessary to put the unemployed to work producing food, fuel, and clothing, and for the erection of housing for their own use. Various experimental communities were established toward these ends. The six-hour day and the five-day work-week without a reduction in wages. The Black bill for the establishment of a thirty-hour week was not passed by Congress. A comprehensive and efficient system of free public employment agencies. Each state now maintains such offices throughout its jurisdiction. A compulsory system of unemployment compensation with adequate benefits, based upon contributions by the government and by employers. Provided by the Social Security Act, 1936, with additional contributions by employees. Old age pensions for men and women sixty years of age and over. Provided by the Social Security Act, 1936, for those sixty-five years of age and over. Health and maternity insurance. Provided by the Social Security Act, 1936. Improved systems of workmen's compensation and accident insurance. Senate bill 2793, introduced May 9, 1935, by Senator Wagner, culminated in passage by Congress of the Wagner Act, a comprehensive labor-management act. The abolition of child labor. Statutory education requirements and minimum work age laws. Government aid to farmers and small homeowners to protect them against mortgage foreclosure and a moratorium on sales for nonpayment of taxes by destitute farmers and unemployed workers. Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), March 16, 1933 Farm Credit Administration (FCA), March 27, 1933 Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA), 1938 Federal Housing Administration (FHA) HOLC Adequate minimum wage laws Established by the National Recovery Administration (NRA), created by NIRA, May 17, 1933. In 1935, the NRA was found to be unconstitutional by the untied States Supreme Court. Nonetheless, minimum wage limits still exist. Source: http: //www. drfurfero. com/books/231 book/ch 03 f 1. html

Franklin D. Roosevelt Inaugural Address Aimee Williams April 12, 2007 HIST 419

Franklin Delano Roosevelt 1882 -1945 • • • Born Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1882 to a wealthy family in the Hudson Valley in New York He graduated from Groton Preparatory School and then attended Harvard where he earned a law degree After school he became a Wall Street Lawyer and married Anna Eleanor Roosevelt in 1905 (his fifth cousin once removed!!) Roosevelt aligned with the Democratic party and won a seat in the New York senate n 1910 He later became assistant secretary of the Navy during Wilson’s administration In 1921 Roosevelt was diagnosed with polio and was confirmed o wheelchair with brief periods of being able to stand with assistance Despite hardship Roosevelt emerged as governor of New York in 1928 He was inaugurated as president of the U. S. on March 4, 21933 in the middle of the Great Depression His first one hundred days in office his 15 major proposals for economic relief were passed

Main Points of Inaugural Address • He began by reassuring the people of the U. S. that the country will endure through this adversity – “This great Nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and will prosper. So first of all, let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself…” • Contributes problems to banking and business (calls the bankers and businessmen “Money changers” – “True they have tried, but their efforts have been cast in the pattern of outworn tradition. Faced by failure of credit they have proposed only the lending of more money. They have no vision, and when there is no vision the people perish. ”

Main Points continued… • States that America must take action to put people back to work as soon as possible • Suggests using the government amend the American system and aid recovery (1 st time this was ever done) • Identifies two safeguards that must be made: – “there must be strict supervision of all banking credits & investment” – “provision for an adequate but sound currency” • Introduces Ideas for Improvement – – – “Engaging on a national scale in a redistribution effort” “Raise value of agricultural products” Increase “power to purchase” “Preventing…growing loss though foreclosure” “Unifying relief activities”

Main Points Continued… Roosevelt states that in foreign policy the U. S. will, like a good neighbor respect the rights of others • Finally Roosevelt makes a personal promise to the people that if Congress does not help him he will ask for Executive power •

Historical Significance • The importance of Roosevelt’s Inaugural Address was that it gave the American people HOPE for a better tomorrow • With this address he assured them that he was not going to put patches on the problems as the previous administration did but he actually had plans in mind for changes.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt: The Four Freedoms Delivered 6 January, 1941 WHAT THEY ARE • The FIRST is freedom of speech and expression -- everywhere in the world. • The SECOND is freedom of every person to worship God in his own way -- everywhere in the world. • The THIRD is freedom from want -- which, translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabitants -- everywhere in the world. • The FORTH is freedom from fear -- which, translated into world terms, means a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a point and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor-anywhere in the world

Norman Rockwell, Our Four Freedoms, (1943)

• Harry S. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri on May 8, Harry S. Truman 1884. • In 1905, shortly after graduating in the Military from high school, Truman served in the Missouri National Guard. • Part of the 129 th Field Artillery and sent to France, he and his unit saw action in several different campaigns. • He was promoted to captain, and after the war he joined the reserves eventually rising to the rank of colonel.

Harry and Bess Truman • On June 28, 1919, Truman married Elizabeth Virginia Wallace. • Their only child, Mary Margaret, was born on February 17, 1924. • He ran a men's clothing store in Kansas City but due to the postwar recession it failed. • Truman began politics in 1922 as one of three judges of the Jackson County Court. • In 1934, Truman was elected to the United States Senate where he gained national prominence as chairman of the Senate Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program.

• On January 20, 1945, he took the vice-presidential oath, and after President Roosevelt's unexpected death, he was sworn in as the nations' thirty-third President. • Truman's presidency focused on foreign policy which was centered on the prevention of Soviet influence by which he proposed The Truman Doctrine. President Harry S. Truman

Main Point 1: At the present moment in world history nearly every nation must choose between alternative ways of life. The alternatives are between a free society and totalitarianism. The choice is too often not a free one. • “The peoples of a number of countries of the world have recently had totalitarian regimes forced upon them against their will. This imposed aggression undermines the foundations of international peace and the security of the United States. ” • “Should we fail to aid Greece and Turkey in this fateful hour, the effect will be far reaching to the West as well as to the East. ” • • • Sub-Point 1: One way of life is based upon the will of the majority, and is distinguished by free institutions, representative government, free elections, guarantees of individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom from political oppression. “We shall not realize our objectives, unless we are willing to help free peoples to maintain their free institutions and their national integrity against aggressive movements that seek to impose upon them totalitarian regimes. ” “If we falter in our leadership, we may endanger the peace of the world-and we shall surely endanger the welfare of this Nation. ” Sub-Point 2: The second way of life is based upon the will of a minority forcibly imposed upon the majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and radio; fixed elections, and the suppression of personal freedoms. • “The seeds of totalitarian regimes are nurtured by misery and want. They spread and grow in the evil soil of poverty and strife. They reach their full growth when the hope of a people for a better life has died. ” “If Greece should fall under the control of an armed minority, the effect upon its neighbor, Turkey, would be immediate and serious. Confusion and disorder might well spread throughout the entire Middle East. ”

Main Point 2: I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. • “One of the primary objectives of the foreign policy of the U. S. is the creation of conditions in which we and other nations will be able to work out a way of life free from coercion. ” • “This was a fundamental issue in the war with Germany and Japan. Our victory was won over countries which sought to impose their will, and their way of life, upon other nations. ” Main Point 3: I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way. • “Great responsibilities have been placed upon us by the swift movement of events. ” • “The free peoples of the world look to us for support in maintaining their freedom. ” • “Our help should be primarily through economic and financial aid which is essential to economic stability and orderly political process. ”

J. Edgar Hoover 1895 -1972

Background • Born January 1, 1895 in Washington, D. C. • Parents: Dickerson and Anna Hoover • Hoover did not obtain a birth certificate until he was 43, which fueled suspicions, in and out of the bureau, that he was of African-American descent – a family out of Mississippi tried to prove these allegations, but failed. • He kept detailed records on himself, teachers, and family members starting at a young age. • At age 11, started his own newspaper, The Weekly Review, that he sold to family and friends for 1 cent.

Background continued… • His school nickname was “Speed” because he thought fast and talked fast. • Hoover’s father, Dickerson, spent the last eight years of his life in an asylum. His cause of death was listed as “melancholia” – clinical depression. • 1916 – graduated with a law degree from George Washington University Law School. • Hoover became a Freemason in 1920.

Background continued… • Hoover’s failure to marry and his constant companionship with Clyde Tolson, led to many rumors about his sexuality. • Clyde Tolson was the sole heir to Hoover’s estate and was also buried next to Hoover. • Hoover was also an avid dog lover.

Head of the FBI • Hoover joined the Bureau of Investigation, later known as the FBI, in 1921. • In 1924 at the age of 29, Hoover was appointed acting Director of the BOI and by the end of the year he was officially named Director. • Hoover remained the Director of the FBI until his death on May 2, 1972 at the age of 77. • The FBI Headquarters in Washington, D. C. is named after Hoover. Because of the controversial nature of Hoover's legacy, there have been periodic proposals to rename it.

Head of the FBI • During his reign over the FBI, Hoover built an efficient crime-detection agency, established a centralized fingerprint file, a crime laboratory and a training institution for police. • He dictated every aspect of his agents’ lives from who their friends should or should not be, who they should or should not marry, what organizations they could or could not join; decided where they would live; monitored their morals; even told them what to wear and what they could weigh; and bestowed praise and awards, blame and punishments, when he decided they were due.

Head of the FBI • The FBI, under Hoover, collected information on all America's leading politicians. Known as Hoover's secret files, this material was used to influence their actions. It was later claimed that Hoover used this incriminating material to make sure that the eight presidents that he served under, would be too frightened to sack him as director of the FBI. . “ • Presidents Harry Truman, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson each considered firing Hoover but concluded that the political cost of doing so would be too great. Richard Nixon twice called in Hoover with the intent of firing him, but both times he changed his mind when meeting with Hoover.

Head of the FBI • Hoover ignored the existence of organized crime in the U. S. until famed muckraker Jack Anderson exposed the immense scope of the Mafia's organized crime network. It has been suggested that Hoover did not pursue the Mafia because they had incriminating evidence (photos) against him in respect to his sexual orientation. • Despite all of these allegations, during his long career of public service, Director Hoover received three presidential awards, sundry citations by Congress, and following his death was the first civil servant in U. S. history to lie in state in the Rotunda of the U. S. Capitol.

Political Views • • Conservative Anti-communist Against suffrage for women Opposed the Civil Rights movement

Major Issues of the Time • • • 1 st Red Scare (1917 -1920) Espionage Act of 1917 Sedition Act of 1918 The Palmer Raids House Committee on Un-American Activities • WW II • Iron Curtain in Europe

"Uncle Sam bids good riddance to the deportees" (from J. Edgar Hoover's memorabilia and scrapbook in the National Archives). • The more famous of the Palmer raids was December 21, in which 249 people were dragged from their homes, forcibly put on board a ship and deported.

Intended Audience • Hoover delivered “The Communist Menace” before the House Committee on Un-American Activities on March 26, 1947.

The Communist Menace Main Points 1. The Communist Party of the United States intends to destroy the American businessman, take over our government, and throw the whole world into revolution. Ø “The Communist movement in the United States…stands for the destruction of free enterprise, and it stands for the creation of a “Soviet of the United States” and ultimate world revolution. ”

The Communist Menace Main Points continued… 2. The American programs to help society such as, social security, veterans’ benefits, and welfare all communist ideas used to lure the support of unsuspecting citizens. Ø“The American progress which all good citizens seek, such as old-age security, houses for veterans, child assistance and a host of others is being adopted as window dressing by the Communists to conceal their true aims and entrap gullible followers. ”

The Communist Menace Main Points continued… 3. The greatest threat of communism is not how many Communists are in this country, but their ability to insert themselves into positions of power and their ability to persuade through lies and deception. Americans should FEAR the communist infiltration of their government and society. Ø “What is important is the claim of the Communists themselves that for every party member there are 10 others ready, willing, and able to do the party’s work. Herein lies the greatest menace of communism. For these people who infiltrate and corrupt various spheres of American life. So rather than the size of the Communist Party the way to weigh its true importance is by testing its influence, its ability to infiltrate. ” Ø “…When the Communists overthrew the Russian government there was one Communist for every 2, 277 persons in Russia. In the United States today there is one Communist for every 1, 814 persons in the country…”

Historical Significance • 2 nd Red Scare (1947 -1957) • 1947 - Ronald Reagan and wife Jane Wyman provide to the FBI names of SAG members believed to be communist sympathizers. • 1947 - Top Hollywood executives decide not to employ individuals who refused to answer questions about communist infiltration of the film industry • Mc. Carthyism starts(1950): Sen. Joseph P. Mc. Carthy says he has a list of 205 communists in the State Department. • 1950 - California Legislature passes a bill requiring state employees to sign a loyalty oath. • 1953 - Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, convicted of conspiring to commit espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union, are executed.

Brown vs. Board of Education Presented by: Kathy Kerley

Historical Background • After the end of the American Civil War in 1865, (Reconstruction period) the federal government was able to provide some protection for the civil rights of the newly-freed slaves. • When Reconstruction ended in 1877 and federal troops were withdrawn, southern state governments started passing Jim Crow laws that prohibited blacks from using the same public facilities as whites. • Fourteenth Amendment did not help because the Supreme Court ruled, in the Civil Rights Cases (1883), that the amendment applied only to the actions of governments, not private individuals. • In 1896, Plessy vs. Ferguson was passed. This was a landmark decision that upheld segregation and the “separate but equal” doctrine.

Historical Background • The “separate but equal” doctrine was challenged by Charles Houston, the head of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People’s Legal Defense Fund. • He traveled through the South with his student, Thurgood Marshall (later appointed to the U. S. Supreme Court in 1967), filming rundown black schools and gathering any information to help with his appeal. • In 1950, Thurgood Marshall took over for Houston. • The case was first argued against the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1952. The court was divided about overturning Plessy vs. Ferguson and asked to have the case reargued in the new term in 1953, paying special attention to the intention of the Fourteenth Amendment. • Chief Justice Fred Vinson, who strongly opposed overturning Plessy vs. Ferguson, died and his successor, Chief Justice Earl Warren, favored ending segregated education by focusing on the harm done to black children who were segregated and relying on sociological evidence supporting this idea.

Brown vs. Board of Education Facts • Brown vs. Board of Education was not the first challenge to school segregation. In 1849, African Americans filed a suit against an educational system that mandated racial segregation in the case Roberts vs. City of Boston. • This class action suit was filed on behalf of thirteen Topeka, Kansas parents and their twenty children. • Oliver Brown, the case namesake was just one of the nearly 200 plaintiffs from five states who were part of the NAACP cases brought before the Supreme Court in 1951. The Kansas case was named after Oliver Brown as a legal strategy. He was the head of the roster because he had an intact, complete family, and it would be received better by the Supreme Court than a single parent.

Main Points Chief Justice Warren delivered the opinion of the Court. Ø Although the buildings, curricula, qualifications and salaries of teachers and other “tangible” factors are equal to the white schools, the issue is the effect that segregation has on public education and black students. “Our decision, therefore cannot turn on merely a comparison of these tangible factors in the Negro and white schools involved in each of the cases. We must look instead to the effect of segregation itself on public education. ” Ø Education is an important factor in the development of professional training and social skills, and those students that are segregated are deprived of equal educational opportunities, even when the facilities are equal. “…To separate [children] from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely to ever be undone. ”

Main Points Ø Segregation is detrimental to the psychological and educational development of the negro group, which in turn will deprive them of benefits that they would receive if they were not segregated. “Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The impact is greater when it has the sanction of law, for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the negro group. A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has a tendency to [retard] the educational and mental development of negro children and to deprive them of some of the benefits they would receive in a racially integrated school system. ” Ø The Court ruled that in the public education the “separate but equal” doctrine had no place, and the students were deprived of equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.

Historical Significance • This ruling dismantled the legal basis for racial segregation in schools and other public facilities. • It became a critical chapter in the maturation of our democracy. It reaffirmed the sovereign power of the people of the United States in the protection of their natural rights from arbitrary limits and restrictions imposed by state and local governments. The same rights that were recognized and in the Declaration of Independence and guaranteed by the U. S. Constitution. • The Brown decision initiated educational and social reform throughout the United States and was a catalyst in launching the modern Civil Rights Movement.

The Southern Manifesto (1956) Linda Brown and her new class mates after the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education. Sen. Strom Thurmond prepared first draft of Southern Manifesto repudiating the Supreme Court's 1954 school desegregation decision. February 1956. Source: http: //americanradioworks. publicradio. org/features/marsha ll/manifesto. html. Courtesy: Strom Thurmond Institute

The Southern Manifesto In 1956, 96 congressmen from the former Confederate States wrote the Southern Manifesto to voice their opposition to the 1954 Supreme Court ruling Brown v. Board of Education. It was signed by 77 members of the House of Representatives and 19 Senators, including the entire congressional delegations of the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi and South Carolina.

Main Points The Southern Manifesto 1. The Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education is a clear abuse of judicial power. We regard the decision of the Supreme Court in the schools cases as a clear abuse of the judicial power. It climaxes a trend in the Federal judiciary undertaking to legislate, in derogation of the authority of Congress, and to encroach upon the reserved rights of the States and the people.

Main Points Continued… The Southern Manifesto 2. The doctrine of separate but equal is an established legal principle, almost a century old, and the Supreme Court has no legal bases to overturn it. The original Constitution does not mention education. Neither does the 14 th amendment nor any other amendment. The debates preceding the submission of the 14 th amendment clearly show that there was no intent that it should affect the systems of education maintained by the States. • The very Congress which proposed the [14 th] amendment provided for segregated schools in the District of Columbia. • In 1868, 26 out of the 37 states approved of segregated schools • The doctrine of separate but equal schools originated in the North in the 1849 case of Roberts v City of Boston. • In the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court declared that separate but equal facilities did not violate a citizen's right under the 14 th amendment.

Main Points Continued… The Southern Manifesto 3. The Supreme Court’s unwarranted decision in Brown v. Board of Education is creating chaos and hurting relations between whites and blacks. This unwarranted exercise of power by the Court, contrary to the Constitution, is creating chaos and confusion in the States principally affected. It is destroying the amicable relation between the white and Negro races that have been created through 90 years of patient effort by the good people of both races. It has planted hatred and suspicion where there has been heretofore friendship and understanding. 4. Outside agitators threaten to destroy the system of public education in much of the South. Without regard to the consent of the governed, outside agitators are threatening immediate and revolutionary changes in our public-school systems. If done, this is certain to destroy the system of public education in some of the States. Thurgood Marshall with James Nabrit Jr. and George E. C. Hayes after their victory in the Brown v. Board of Education case before the Supreme Court, May 17, 1954.

Main Points Continued… The Southern Manifesto 5. The Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education violates States’ rights and is unconstitutional. We decry the Supreme Court’s encroachments on rights reserved to the States and to the people, contrary to established law and to the Constitution. Linda Brown

Main Points Continued… The Southern Manifesto 6. We Southerners will refrain from lawless acts, even as we confront the wrongs of the Supreme Court and provocations by outside agitators. In this trying period, as we all seek to right this wrong, we appeal to our people not to be provoked by the agitators and troublemakers invading our States and to scrupulously refrain from disorders and lawless acts. September 4, 1957: In Little Rock, Ark. , shouts of approval greeted Paul Davis Taylor as he waved a Confederate flag at Central High School. September 5, 1957: A jeering Student follows Elizabeth Echford as she tries to enter Central High School.

Erin Dickison Oral Presentation Letter from a Birmingham Jail Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. ’s Historical Background Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. , (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was the most famous leader of the American civil rights movement, a political activist, a Baptist minister, and was one of America's greatest orators. In 1964, King became the youngest man to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (for his work as a peacemaker, promoting nonviolence and equal treatment for different races). On April 4, 1968, King was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. In 1977, he was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Jimmy Carter. In 1986, Martin Luther King Day was established as a United States holiday. In 2004, King was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal. [1] King often called for personal responsibility in fostering world peace. [2] King's most influential and well-known public address is the "I Have A Dream" speech, delivered on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C. in 1963.

Early Life Martin Luther King, Jr. , was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia. He was the second child of the Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King between his sister, Willie Christine (September 11, 1927) and younger brother, Albert Daniel (nicknamed 'A. D. '; July 30, 1930 – July 21, 1969). According to his father, the attending physician mistakenly entered "Michael" on Martin Jr. 's birth certificate. [3] King sang with his church choir at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the Wind. He entered Morehouse College at the age of fifteen, as he skipped his ninth and twelfth high school grades without formally graduating. In 1948, he graduated from Morehouse with a Bachelor of Arts (B. A. ) degree in sociology, and enrolled in Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester, Pennsylvania and graduated with a Bachelor of Divinity (B. D. ) degree in 1951. In September of that year, King began doctoral studies in Systematic Theology at Boston University and received his Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D. ) on June 5, 1955. [4] Assassination In late March, 1968, King went to Memphis, Tennessee in support of the black sanitary public works employees, represented by AFSCME Local 1733, who had been on strike since March 12 for higher wages and better treatment: for example, African American workers, paid $1. 70 per hour, were not paid when sent home because of inclement weather (unlike white workers). [16][17][18] On April 3, King returned to Memphis and addressed a rally, delivering his "I've been to the Mountaintop" address. King was assassinated at 6: 01 p. m. April 4, 1968, on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. [19] Friends inside the motel room heard the shots and ran to the balcony to find King shot in the throat. He was pronounced dead at St. Joseph's Hospital at 7: 05 p. m. The assassination led to a nationwide wave of riots in more than 60 cities. [20] Five days later, President Lyndon B. Johnson declared a national day of mourning for the lost civil rights leader. A crowd of 300, 000 attended his funeral that same day. Vice-President Hubert Humphrey attended on behalf of Lyndon B. Johnson, who was meeting with several advisors and cabinet officers on the Vietnam War in Camp David (there were fears Johnson might be hit with protests and abuses over the war if he attended). At his widow's request, King eulogized himself: at the funeral his last sermon at Ebenezer Baptist Church, a recording of his famous 'Drum Major' sermon, given on February 4, 1968, was played. In that sermon he makes a request that at his funeral no mention of his awards and honors be made, but that it be said that he tried to "feed the hungry", "clothe naked", "be right on the [Vietnam] war question", and "love and serve humanity". Per King's request, his good friend Mahalia Jackson sang his favorite hymn, "Take My Hand, Precious Lord", at the funeral. Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr. #Early_life

Main Points First Main Point - "I am in Birmingham because injustice is here" Martin Luther King Jr. was accused of being an "outside agitator" and he responded to his critics by saying that the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights specifically invited him to Birmingham because of the almost non-existent response to African Americans right to basic human rights. But more importantly, he says he is there because he is an American and as an American he has the duty to go anywhere in the U. S. to fight the injustice African Americans face. He says, "Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. Anyone who lives inside the United States can never be considered an outsider anywhere within its bounds. You deplore the demonstrations taking place in Birmingham. But your statement, I am sorry to say, fails to express a similar concern for the conditions that brought about the demonstrations. " Second Main Point - Direct Nonviolent Action is Necessary "As in so many past experiences, our hopes had been blasted, and the shadow of deep disappointment settled upon us. We had no alternative except to prepare for direct action, whereby we would present out very bodies as a means of laying our case before the conscience of the local and the national community. Why direct action? Why sit-ins, marches and so forth? Isn't negotiation a better path? This is the very purpose of direct action. Nonviolent direct action seeks to create such a crisis and foster such a tension that a community which has constantly refused to negotiate is forced to confront the issue. "

Third Main Point - Freedom Must be Fought For "We know through painful experience that freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed. Justice too long delayed is justice denied. " Martin Luther King, Jr. points out the African Americans have been waiting for 340 years for equality and have been denied time after time. They have been told they must "wait". He cites that all the past wrongs, such as lynching or being called vile names, has taken a toll on the African American community. On one hand, causing a resignation to the status quo. However being told to “wait” for equality was causing some African American's to hate the white man. He feared that this hatred might lead African Americans to consider the possibility of violent action. Fourth Main Point - Civil Disobedience "One has not only a legal but a moral responsibility to obey just laws. Conversely, one has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws. An unjust law is a human law that is not rooted in eternal law and natural law. Any law that uplifts human personality is just. Any law that degrades human personality is unjust. " He stated that it is imperative that a free people must disobey any law that is unjust and fight for true justice. One can see Thoreau's influence in Martin Luther King, Jr. ’s writing. He specifically uses the term "civil disobedience" in his letter. Martin Luther King Jr. was also influenced by Dubois. However, he did not directly quote Dubois because Dubois was considered to be very controversial by many and King did not want to alienate anyone. He also sights many instances in history when people who sacrificed their very laws to disobey laws that were inhuman and unjust, such as, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego who refused to obey the laws of Nebuchadnezzar. He also points out that early Christians also broke laws in order to practice their new religion. He references the American revolutionaries and how they broke English law by "throwing" the Boston Tea Party. He also points out how the Jews were treated by the Nazis during WWII and says that, despite the law, he would have helped his Jewish brothers.

Fifth Main Point - Failure of the White Moderate Martin Luther King, Jr. did not place all the blame on the KKK for the continued disenfranchisement of African Americans. He states that he is disappointed in the white moderate. He says that the white moderate says, "I agree with you in the goal you seek, but I cannot agree with your methods of direct action. " He states that the white moderate wanted the African Americans to wait until "a more convenient season" to seek their rights. Martin Luther King, Jr. warns that if people do not listen to African Americans who are using nonviolent direct action to achieve equality, it is almost certain that a frustrated populace will turn to black-nationalists ideologies that might lead to violent action. Sixth Main Point - Disappointment in Organized Religion Martin Luther King, Jr. states very plainly that he is not disappointed in the Christian faith itself. Rather, his disappointment lies with the reverends, priests, and rabbis that, he felt, should have sympathized and helped the African Americans achieve equality. He did point out many exceptions of how different ministers, and other church officials, had tried to help African Americans achieve equality. However, overall, far too many fellow ministers remained silent or accused him of being a "rabble rouser". "So often the contemporary church is a weak, ineffectual voice with an uncertain sound. So often it is an archdefedender of the status quo. Far from being disturbed by the presence of the church, the power structure of the average community is console by the church's silent and often even vocal sanction of things as they are. "

Seventh Main Point - Endorsing Injustice is Immoral "You warmly commended the Birmingham police for keeping "order" and "preventing violence. I doubt that you would have so warmly commended the police force if you had seen its dogs sinking their teeth into unarmed, nonviolent Negroes. I doubt that you would so quickly comment the policemen if you were to observe their ugly and inhumane treatment of Negroes here in the city jail; if you were to watch them push and curse old Negro women and young Negro girls; if you were to see them slap and kick old Negro men and young boys; if you were to observe them, as they did on two occasions, refuse to fives us food because we wanted to sing our grace together. I cannot join your praise of the Birmingham police department. " One should not be praised for endorsing a law that keeps other people in a second class status. The police were upholding laws that were unjust and used excessive force into the bargain. In Martin Luther King Jr. ’s opinion, no commendation should have been given.

“The Letter from Birmingham Jail or Letter from Birmingham City Jail, was an open letter written on April 16, 1963 by Martin Luther King, Jr. , an American civil rights leader. King wrote the letter from the city jail in Birmingham, Alabama, after a peaceful protest against segregation. The letter is a response to a statement made by eight white Alabama clergymen on April 12, 1963 titled "A Call For Unity" which agreed that social injustices were taking place but expressed the belief that the battle against racial segregation should be fought solely in the courts and not taken onto the streets. King responded that, without forceful, direct actions such as his, true civil rights could never be achieved. As he put it, ‘This 'Wait' has almost always meant 'Never. ' He asserted not only that civil disobedience is justified in the face of unjust laws, but also that ‘one has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws. ’" The letter was first published as "Letter from Birmingham Jail" in the June 12, 1963 edition of The Christian Century [Source: reprinted in Reporting Civil Rights, Part One (page 777 - 794) - American Journalism 1941 - 1963. The Library of America] Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Letter_from_birmingham_jail This letter was very important because it clearly explained that change would never happen if African Americans remained silent and simply hoped that the white moderate would grant them the freedom they had so long been denied. Martin Luther King Jr. wrote this letter especially to several ministers who had rebuked him for taking direct action against unjust laws. This letter was aimed at them but, it cannot be denied, that the letter has had a very great impact on this nation.

The Negro Family: the Case for National Action (1965) Patrick Moynihan Historical Context • Born in Tulsa, OK in 1927 • Studied at City College of New York and Tufts University • Taught at Syracuse, Harvard and MIT • He is the only person in American history to serve in four consecutive administrations • As a professor of sociology at Harvard, he gained notoriety when he wrote The Negro Family, also known as, the Moynihan Report • In 1976 he won a US Senate seat for the state of New York as a Democrat • He retired from the Senate in 2001

• Main Points • “At the heart of the deterioration of the fabric of Negro society is the deterioration of the Negro family. ” • All of the problems plaguing the Negro society, unemployment, poverty, crime and drugs, can be attributed to the deterioration and dysfunction of the family. This deterioration and dysfunction is the result of what we have studied in previous documents: Harriet Jacobs, Ida B. Wells and Alexander Stephens. • “As a direct result of this high rate of divorce, separation, and desertion, a very large percent of Negro families are headed by females. ” • Many Negro families are headed by females. This weakens the family structure due to a lack of an all important male figure in the household.

• • Main Points “The Negro was given liberty, but not equality. Life remained hazardous and marginal. Of the greatest importance, the Negro male, particularly in the South, became an object of intense hostility, an attitude unquestionably based in some measure of fear. ” “Unquestionably, these events worked against the emergence of a strong father figure. The very essence of the male animal, from the bantam rooster to the four-star general, is to strut. Indeed, in 19 th century America, a particular type of exaggerated male boastfulness became almost a national style. Not for the Negro male. The “sassy nigger” was lynched. ” The Jim Crow laws, lynching and persecution by whites psychologically damaged the Negro male. He was not allowed to strut, be boastful, or become a true man and equal member of society like his white counterparts. This psychologically damaged the Negro male. This damage caused him to view himself as a second-class citizen and the normal responsibilities of manhood have escaped him. He lacks an example of how to be because of the perpetual persecution and degradation. “The impact of unemployment on the Negro family and particularly on the Negro male, is the least understood of all the developments that have contributed to the present crisis… The fundamental, overwhelming fact is that Negro unemployment, with the exception of a few years during WWII and the Korean War, has continued at disaster levels for 35 years… As jobs became more and more difficult to find, the stability of the family became more and more difficult to maintain…” “In essence, the Negro community has been forced into a matriarchal structure which, because it is so out of line with the rest of the American society, seriously retards the progress of the group as a whole, and imposes a crushing burden on the Negro male and, in consequence, on a great many Negro women as well. ”

• Main Points • This, I believe, is the key main point of the document. The unemployment of the Negro male has caused the Negro community to be led by women. This weakens the whole community. It burdens the females because they have the play the roles of mother and father and it burdens the males because they do not know how to play their roles as father, protector and provider. • “It was by destroying the Negro family under slavery that white America broke the will of the Negro people. Although that will has reasserted itself in our time, it is a resurgence doomed to frustration unless the viability of the Negro family is restored…” • Here Moynihan sums up how the Negro family began its deterioration and asserts that things have improved. However, the progress is in jeopardy if the Negro family is not allowed to grow, develop and succeed. Moynihan calls for the government to aid in the restoration of the Negro family. • Historical Significance • The Moynihan Report was written in the middle of the civil rights movement. Moynihan was one of many voices advocating change and reform during the sixties. Moynihan also shed light on and brought up the psychological aspect of the detriment and decay of the Negro community. He also highlighted the fact that unemployment in the Negro community was a real problem and that the government should do something about it.

Farewell Address (1961) Dwight D. Eisenhower Evelyn C. Sims History 419 Dr. Michael Perri 04/19/07

Historical Context • Leader of the Allied forces in Europe during WWII • U. S. had a history of quick postwar military demobilization • American war hero & politician • Nicknamed “Ike” • 34 th U. S. President (Rep. ) • During 1953 -1961 term: – – – Ended Korean War Pressured USSR during COLD WAR Nuclear Weapons – high priority Launched Space Race Enlarged Social Security program 1890 -1969

Historical Context (continued) – Began Interstate Highway System – Supported 1954 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka • Segregated schools ruled unconstitutional – Proposed the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 & 1960 – Placed the Arkansas National Guard under federal control & sent Army troops to escort the “Little Rock Nine” (1957) – Alaska and Hawaii were admitted to the Union – In efforts to portray America as a godly nation in contrast to the “atheistic” Soviet Union, he was Instrumental in the addition/adoption of • “under God” to the Pledge of Allegiance (1954) • “In God We Trust” as the US motto (1956) • “In God We Trust” on paper currency (1957) • Delivered this television speech to the American people from the Oval Office on January 17, 1961

Main Point 1 • As president, Eisenhower accomplished much and met the expectations of the American people - that the President and Congress should put aside political party affiliation and work cooperatively toward the common goal of the nation’s best interest. • • “Our people expect their President and the Congress to find essential agreement on issues of great moment, the wise resolution of which will better shape the Nation. ” “. . . Congress and the Administration have, on most vital issues, cooperated well, to serve the national good rather than mere partisanship, and so have assured that the business of the Nation should go forward. ”

Main Point 2 • After three major wars in the 20 th century, America has emerged to be the most powerful nation and should use that power to fulfill our basic purposes for world peace and human betterment. • • • “America today is the strongest, the most influential, and most productive nation in the world. . America’s leadership and prestige depend, not merely upon our unmatched material progress, riches and military strength, but on how we use our power in the interests of world peace and human betterment. ” “Throughout America’s adventure in free government, our basic purposes have been to keep the peace; to foster progress in human achievement; and to enhance liberty, dignity and integrity among people and among nations. ” “Any failure traceable to arrogance, or lack of comprehension or readiness to sacrifice would inflict upon us grievous hurt both at home and abroad. ”

Main Point 3 • Americans must make it a priority to confront COMMUNISM; but as we find new solutions to face this new crisis, we must use good judgment that seeks balance and progress. • • • “Progress toward these noble goals is persistently threatened by the conflict now engulfing the world. . . We face a hostile ideology – global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose, and insidious in method. ” “Crises there will continue to be, in meeting them, whether foreign or domestic, great or small, there is a recurring temptation to feel that some spectacular and costly action could become the miracle solution to all current difficulties. A huge increase in newer elements of our defense; development of unrealistic programs to cure every ill in agriculture; a dramatic expansion in basic and applied research – these and many other possibilities in itself, may be suggested as the only way to the road we wish to travel. ” “But each proposal must be weighed in the light of a broader consideration; the need to maintain balance in and among national programs. . . ”

Main Point 4 • To intimidate COMMUNIST aggression, America has developed the Military – Industrial – Complex, but with it comes “potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power. ” • • • “Our arms must be mighty, ready for instant action, so that no potential aggressor may be tempted to risk his own destruction. ” “We have been compelled to create a permanent armaments industry of vast proportions. Added to this, three and a half million men and women are directly engaged in the defense establishment. ” “In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the militaryindustrial-complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist. ” With the technological revolution, scientific research has become “more formalized, complex, and costly. ” “… a government contract becomes virtually a substitute for intellectual curiosity… The prospect of domination of the nation’s scholars by

Main Point 5 • The government and the citizens need to consider future generations by conserving resources. IF we fail to do so, we risk the loss of democracy for them. • “As we peer into society’s future, we – you and I, and our government – must avoid the impulse to live only for today, plundering, for our own ease and convenience, the precious resources of tomorrow. We cannot mortgage the material assets of our grandchildren without risking the loss also of their political and spiritual heritage. We want democracy to survive for all generations to come, not to become the insolvent phantom of tomorrow. ”

Main Point 6 • The Cold War has dictated an attitude of “fear and hate” that needs to be changed to one of “mutual trust and respect” by making disarmament an imperative so that we can avoid another major war that could destroy civilization. • • • “Down the long lane of history yet to be written America knows that this world of ours, ever growing smaller, must avoid becoming a community of dreadful fear and hate, and be, instead, a proud confederation of mutual trust and respect. ” “Disarmament, with mutual honor and confidence, in a continuing imperative. Together we must learn how to compose differences, not with arms, but with intellect and decent purpose. Because this need is so sharp and apparent I confess that I lay down my official responsibilities in this field with a definite sense of disappointment. ” “. . . as one who knows that another war could utterly destroy this civilization which has been so slowly and painfully built over thousands of years. . . “

Main Point 7 • He offers America’s “prayerful and continuing aspiration” to all people of the world that those who seek freedom will receive it AND those who have freedom will understand the responsibilities that come with it, working to right the wrongs to attain world peace. • • “We pray that peoples of all faiths, all races, all nations, may have their great human needs satisfied; that those now denied opportunity shall come to enjoy it to the full; that all who yearn for freedom may experience its spiritual blessings; that those who have freedom will understand also, its heavy responsibilities. . . “ “. . . and that in the goodness of time all peoples will come to live together in a peace guaranteed by the binding force of mutual respect and love. ”

Historical Significance • His candor surprised many people when he warned them about the Military-Industrial-(Congressional) Complex • Americans were informed of the need for checks and balances • This speech challenged the American people to employ intellect and decency as an alternative to war in resolving conflicts. In doing this world peace could be possible. • He is commended for telling the truth to the public and has been called “a prophet for our time” when “we’re riddled with scandals in the congress about lobbyists and special interest groups and their impact on policy making” (Guerrasio, para. 9, http: //www. indiewire. com/people/2006/01/eugene_jarecki. html) • He left the White House as a very popular president. He had avoided war, but regretted that he was unable to achieve détente.

Questions for Discussion • Has any part of Eisenhower’s warning come true? • What preventative steps did Eisenhower recommend?

Jimmy Carter, Energy and National Goals (popularly known as the "malaise" speech) (1979) Main Points: 1. Americans suffer from a lack of confidence. • I want to talk to you right now about a fundamental threat to American democracy. . I do not refer to the outward strength of America, a nation that is at peace tonight everywhere in the world, with unmatched economic power and military might. • The threat is nearly invisible in ordinary ways. It is a crisis of confidence. It is a crisis that strikes at the very heart and soul and spirit of our national will. We can see this crisis in the growing doubt about the meaning of our own lives and in the loss of a unity of purpose for our Nation.

2. Americans have lost faith in their government and in their ability to shape their government. Our people are losing that faith, not only in government itself but in the ability as citizens to serve as the ultimate rulers and shapers of our democracy…. 3. Americans have become adicted to consumerism, which has sapped their confidence and sense of purpose. In a nation that was proud of hard work, strong families, closeknit communities, and our faith in God, too many of us now tend to worship self-indulgence and consumption. Human identity is no longer defined by what one does, but by what one owns. But we’ve discovered that owning things and consuming things does not satisfy our longing for meaning. We’ve learned that piling up material goods cannot fill the emptiness of lives which have no confidence or purpose….

4. The sad truth: many Americans have lost respect for onced honored institutions. As you know, there is a growing disrespect for government and for churches anf or schools, the news media, and other institutions. This is not a message of happiness or reassurance, but it is the truth and it is a warning…. Question: Is this statement true. If it were true, do Americans really want to hear the truth, or do they prefer messages of reassurance from their leaders?

5. By coming together to meet the engery challenge, we can win for our nation a new sence of confidence, contol and destiny. However, we must take the following measures: 1. Never use more foreign oil than we did in 1977. 2. Set import quotas 3. Commit national funds and resources to develop alternative sources of fuel 4. Utility companies cut their use of oil by 50% and switch ot other fuels, especially coal. 5. Establish an engery mobilization board to cut through roadblocks to completing key energy projects. 6. All of us need to embark on a bold conservation program. A. I ask Congress to give me authority for mandatory conservation and for standby gasoline rationing.

6. Americans must make sacrifices in their consumerism to meet the crisis. …I’m asking you for your [own] good and for your Nation’s security to take no unnecessary trips, to use carpools or public transportation whenever you can, to park your car one extra day per week, to obey the speed limit, and to set your thermostats to save fuel. Every act of engery conservation like this is more than just common sense—I tell you it is an act of patriotism….

APPRAISAL Appraisal of the speech’s effectiveness: Terrible. People have a need to feel good about themselves, and they seek leaders who make them feel good. Leaders who criticize their people soon lose their people’s support, even if their message is valid.

Support for the Contras By Ronald Reagan • • Born February 6, 1911, to Nelle and John Reagan in Tampico, Illinois. He attended high school in nearby Dixon and then worked his way through Eureka College There, he studied economics and sociology, played on the football team, and acted in school plays. A screen test in 1937 won him a contract in Hollywood. During the next two decades he appeared in 53 films. Reagan became governor of California, the most populous state, in 1967 Ronald Reagan won the Republican Presidential nomination in 1980 and chose as his running mate former Texas Congressman and United Nations Ambassador George Bush. He became the 40 th president.

Anastasio Somoza Debayle & Sandinista Soldiers

Main Points: • The United States does not start wars. – “We will never be the aggressor. We maintain our strength in order to deter and defend aggression, to preserve freedom and peace. We help our friends defend themselves. ” • “Central America is region of great importance to the United States. ” – …San Salvador is closer to Houston, Texas, than Houston is to Washington, D. C. – “…[I]t’s become the stage for a bold attempt by the Soviet Union, Cuba, and

Main Points • The war in El Salvador is resulting in massive waves of refugees. – “Concerns about the prospect of hundreds of thousands of refugees fleeing Communist oppression to seek entry into our country are wellfounded. • The Communist threat is moving closer to the USA.

Main Points • The Communist Sandinistas rule Nicaragua under the veil of Democracy. – “…Castro cynically instructed them in the ways of successful Communist insurrection. He told them to tell the world they were fighting for political democracy, not communism. ” • The Contras have taken up arms against the government. – “Many of those who fought alongside the Sandinistas saw their revolution betrayed. – “Thousands who fought with the

Main Points • With the help of the Soviet Union and Cuba, the Sandinistas are funding terrorism. – “Shortly after taking power…began supporting aggression and terrorism against El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala. ” – “…Nicaragua is still the headquarters for Communist guerrilla movements…. ” • The Communist presence in Nicaragua is growing. – “There were 165 Cuban personnel in Nicaragua in 1979. Today that force has grown to 10, 000. ” – “Communist countries are providing new

Andrew Sullivan This Is a Religious War: September 11 was Only the Beginning Background Information: Andrew Sullivan was born in England on August 10, 1963 and is a renowned journalist in both the United Kingdom and the U. S. He is the former editor of The New Republic for his battling lifestyle between conservative Catholicism and active gay lifestyle with HIV. He is also a pioneer in the genre of Blog Journalism. Sullivan also briefly wrote for The New York Times Journal. He is often compared to Camille Paglia, another homosexual who argues from a non-leftist perspective. Historical Context: This article was written after the attacks on September 11, 2001 on the Twin Towers in New York City. It was written in response that people were not calling this a “religious war” when he clearly saw that it was.

Andrew Sullivan This Is a Religious War: September 11 was Only the Beginning Main Points: 1. This is a religious war between Islamic Fundamentalism and faiths of all kinds “Rather, it is a war of fundamentalism against faiths of all kinds that are at peace with freedom and modernity. ” “This is a religious war between “unbelief and unbelievers” in bin Laden’s words. ” “In 1998 he [bin Laden] also told followers that his terrorism was “of the commendable kind, for it is directed t the tyrants and the aggressors and the enemies of Allah. ” 2. This is not the first time fundamentalism has crept into the secular realm “What, after all, were the totalitarian societies of Nazi Germany or Soviet Russia if not an exact replica of this kind of fusion of politics and ultimate meaning? Under Lenin’s and Stalin’s rules, the imminence of salvation through revolutionary consciousness was in perpetual danger of being undermined by those too weak to have faith…so they had to be liquidated or purged. ” “It is harder for us to understand that in some twisted fashion, they [Nazis] truly believed that they were creating a new dawn for humanity, a place where all the doubts that freedom brings could be dispelled in a rapture of racial purity and destiny. ”

Andrew Sullivan This Is a Religious War: September 11 was Only the Beginning Main Points: 3. The defeat of fundamentalists has been and is an arduous task “Perhaps the most important thing for us to realize today is that the defeat of each of these fundamentalists required a long and arduous effort. The conflict with Islamic fundamentalism is likely to take as long. ” 4. The critical link of Western and Middle Eastern Fundamentalism is the pace of social change “The critical link between Western and Middle Easter fundamentalism is surely the pace of social change. If you take your beliefs from books written more than a thousand years ago, and you believe in these texts literal, then the appearance of the modern world must terrify you. ” “If you believe that women should be consigned to polygamous, concealed servitude, then Manhattan must appear like Gomorrah…It is not a big step to argue that such centers of evil should be destroyed or undermined as bin Laden does, or to believe that destruction is somehow a consequence of their sin. ”

Andrew Sullivan This Is a Religious War: September 11 was Only the Beginning Main Points: 5. The other critical aspect of this faith is insecurity “American fundamentalists know they are losing the culture war. They are terrified of failure and of the Godless world they believe is about to engulf or crush them. ” “They talk about renewal, but in their private discourse they expect damnation for an America that has lost sight of the fundamentalist notion of God. ” 6. Security from American Taliban: The Constitution “And the surprising consequence of this separation is not that it led to a collapse of religious faith in America – as weak human beings found themselves unable to believe without social and political reinforcement – but that it led to one of the most vibrantly religious civil societies on earth. ” “It is a living tangible rebuke to everything they [Islamic fundamentalists] believe in. ”

George W Bush Born July 6, 1946 New Haven, Connecticut, to George H W and Barbara Bush Grew up in Midland Houston, Texas. Yale University, bachelor's degree, history Harvard University, Master of Business Administration Married Laura Welch on November 5, 1977 Twin daughters, Jenna and Barbara.

Career and Public Service • Owner, oil and gas business • Partner, Texas Rangers Baseball Team • Governor of Texas • Elected President of the United States January 20, 2001

Main Points – Saddam Hussein has been deceitful and manipulative. • The United States and other nations have pursued patient and honorable efforts to disarm the Iraqi regime without war while the Iraqi regime has used diplomacy as a ploy to gain time and advantage.

Main Points Con’t. • This regime has already used weapons of mass destruction against Iraq’s neighbors and against Iraq’s people. ***The danger is clear*** • Preemptive strike is justified: The United States of America has the sovereign authority to use force in assuring its own national security.

Main Points Con’t. • We are now acting because the risks of inaction would be far greater. • The security of the world requires Saddam Hussein disarming now. • Free nations have a duty to defend our people by uniting against the violent nations.

Historical Significance • Saddam Hussein has been captured and is now on trial for crimes against humanity. • His sons have been killed. • It is too soon to make predictions about the outcome of the war or the Iraqi people.