HBS exam review Practice Questions Unit 1 l

HBS – exam review Practice Questions

Unit 1 l Identity

Different Tissue Types l l What type of tissue is Blood ? What tissue type is the epidermis? What tissues make up the brain? The bicep is what type of tissue?

Different Tissue Types l l Blood is Connective The epidermis is Epithelial The Brain is Nervous The bicep is Muscular

Restriction Enzymes l l l Restriction enzymes cut DNA Different restriction enzymes cut DNA Different fragment sizes are cut with different restriction enzymes Hind III will cut one spot, Eco. R I will cut two spots, etc. Can use this information to match at a crime scene, to match parents to children, etc.

Restriction Enzymes l How long would fragments be if only cut with E? l How long would fragments be if cut with E and H?

DNA fingerprints l l Electrophoresis gels used to separate DNA fragments Child has pattern for several different genes, which parents do this child belong to?

Which parent belongs to this child? l l l Lane A – child cut with Hind III Lane B – child cut with Eco R 1 Lane C – parent #1 cut with Hind III Lane D – parent #1 cut with Eco R 1 Lane E – parent #2 cut with Hind III Land F – parent #2 cut with Eco R 1

Forensics l l Male vs female pelvis – what the difference structurally? Calculations - using femur – – l Can also use humerus – – l 2. 32 x length of femur +65 = height 2. 47 x length of femur +54 = height o Male: (2. 97 x MLH) + 73. 5 cm ± 3. 94 cm o Female: (3. 14 x MLH) + 65 cm ± 3. 72 cm or radius – – o Male: (3. 7 x MLR) + 80. 5 cm ± 3. 94 cm o Female: (3. 9 x MLR) + 73. 41 cm ± 3. 72 cm

Forensics l l How to calculate height? What bones can we use? Calculations – – l Male: 2. 32 x length of femur +65 = height Female: 2. 47 x length of femur +54 = height What if femur is 64 cm?

Forensics l l Male = 213. 5 cm or 7’ Female = 212. 1 cm or 6’ 91/2”

Unit 2 l Communication

Eyeball anatomy

Eye l l Path of light through the eye to retina Put in order: retina, optic nerve, vitreous humor, aqueous humor, cornea, lens, pupil (iris)

Eye l Cornea, aqueous humor, pupil (iris), lens, vitreous humor, retina, optic nerve

Blood sugar regulation l l l Which hormones are produced to regulate blood sugar? In presence of high glucose, body produces ____. In presence of low glucose, body produces _____.

Blood sugar regulation l l l Insulin and Glucagon Insulin Glucagon

Action potential and neuron impulse transmission l l This allows neurons to send and receive signals with speed and efficiency compared to other cells What makes them different than other cells? Remember all membrane proteins…. Na channel, K channel, Na/K pump What happens at each step?

l Polarized (at rest) – positive charge outside, negative charge inside – – l Depolarization (transmitting impulse) – Na rushes in through channel, K channel closed – l High sodium outside , high potassium inside Na/K pump – 3 Na out , 2 K in Causes cell to become more negative on outside Repolarization (back to resting) – Na channel closed, K channel open, K flows out of cell – Returns it to positive charge outside, negative inside

Different functions of brain lobes l l Frontal -Personality changes, problem solving , reasoning, long term memory Temporal – hearing Occipital – vision Parietal – bodily sensations such as touch, temp, pain

reflex arc l l l When you see a roach on your shirt…how is the signal sent to react? Put in order: sensory neurons – association neurons – motor neurons - hand - Eyes

reflex arc l Eyes – sensory neurons – association neurons (interneurons) – motor neurons - hand

CNS vs. PNS l l l Which structures are in each? CNS – brain and spinal cord PNS – all nervous tissue outside the brain and spinal cord

Unit 3 l Power

Digestion l Which enzyme digests: – – – l l carbohydrates? – Amylase proteins? – Pepsin fats? - Bile The rate of digestion/enzyme activity is affected by p. H, concentration, and temp. Indicator solutions: – – Biurets solution – protein Benedicts solution – starch (broken down to glucose)

Remember all organs we covered and which systems they belong to… l l l l l Respiratory Nervous Endocrine Digestive Urinary Muscular Skeletal Integumentary Cardiovascular

Digestive System Anatomy

Respiratory system l l How does CO 2 and O 2 move from blood stream to alveoli and from alveoli to blood stream? Diffusion across concentration gradients

Production of energy - ATP l l Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + ATP Three ways to get ATP – CREATINE - The earliest available ATP in the muscle comes from the ATP that is already available within the cell. Once physical exercise begins, this ATP works instantly. This comes from creatine. Phosphate is also stored in the cells and is readily converted to ATP. In either form, with maximum exertion, all of the available cellular ATP is used up in less than thirty seconds. – GLYCOGEN - The next available ATP comes from the process called anaerobic respiration. In an oxygen-breathing mammal, anaerobic respiration is a stopgap measure to produce ATP while waiting for oxygen to come to the rescue. It is not a very efficient way to make ATP, but during maximal exertion, after we’ve used up all the available ATP, and until more oxygen arrives on the scene, it is the only system we have for about a minute or so to produce ATP. How inefficient is it? Without oxygen, for each molecule of glucose (required to produce ATP) we manufacture 2 molecules of ATP. With oxygen, one molecule of glucose will produce about 30 molecules of ATP. In other words, ATP is produced about 15 times more efficiently with oxygen than without it. What is worse, without oxygen, a byproduct, called Lactic Acid, is produced. Too much Lactic Acid will cause the muscles to tighten and reduce their power, otherwise known as ‘the monkey on the back’ syndrome. – GLUCOSE - Finally, once oxygen becomes available to the muscle and remains available to the muscle, ATP is produced in the most abundant and efficient manner (aerobic respiration… also known as the Krebs Cycle). Swimmers who can continuously deliver very high amounts of oxygen to the muscle during maximum exercise have what is called a high VO 2 Max. These are the most conditioned and/or the most capable endurance athletes.

Urinary System - Kidney function l l Nephron – functional unit Path of urine formation – l Glomerulus, bowmans capsule, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, collecting duct, ureter Function of glomerulus – – Filtration GFR = 125 m. L of blood filtered per minute

Nephron

Urinary System – function of ADH l Triggers cascade of events – Na rises, hypothalamus has osmoreceptors that sense, signal pituitary gland to release ADH, absorbed by nephrons in kidney, tells nephron to reabsorb more water into blood, Na levels lower, hypothalamus senses and stops secretion of ADH by pituitary gland, distal convoluted tubule of nephron retains water in tubules and secretes as urine, Na rises…. l ADH responds to water levels while aldosterone responds to electrolyte (ion) levels

Urinalysis l Microscopic examination – – – l l Red blood cells White blood cells Epithelial cells Crystals Bacteria Macroscopic examination – color, clarity Chemical composition tests - p. H, specific gravity, protein content, glucose content, ketone content, white blood cell content, sugar content

Oxygenated vs. Deoxygenated Blood l l To and from lungs – pulmonary artery (oxygen poor blood) and pulmonary vein (oxygen rich blood)To and from body – aorta—>body vena cava Role of cardiovascular vs. Respiratory systems – how exchange happens Exercise – how these systems DELIVER

Energy l l Endergonic (anabolic)–> ADP + P=ATP Exergonic (catabolic) ATP – P= ADP

Unit 4 l Movement

Muscle types Type of muscle Striations? (Y/N) Voluntary? (Y/N) Location in Body Function in Body Histology Skeletal Muscle yes Attached to bone produce movement, stabilize body position Very long, nonconnecting, multinucleate cells with obvious striations Smooth Muscle no no Walls of hollow organs Move fluids such as blood or peristalsis Non-connecting, uninucleate cells, with no striations Cardiac Muscle yes no heart Contract heart to move blood Connected (intercalated discs), uninucleate cells, with striations

Muscle tissue l l Which action is performed by striated muscle tissue under voluntary control? All skeletal muscle functions!!!! Raising your arm, walking, pointing your finger, kicking a soccer ball, moving your neck to the left, raising your shoulders, inhaling into your inspiratory reserve volume using your abdominal muscles What about smooth muscle? What about cardiac muscle?

Types of joints l l Fibrous- connect bones without allowing any movement. The bones of your skull and pelvis are held together by fibrous joints. The union of the spinous processes and vertebrae are fibrous joints. Cartilaginous- are joints in which the bones are attached by cartilage. These joints allow for only a little movment, such as in the spine or ribs. Synovial - allow for much more movement than cartilaginous joints. Cavaties between bones in synovial joints are filled with synovial fluid. This fluid helps lubricate and protect the bones. Range of motion – which is greatest and which is least? Synovial of course, then cartilaginous, then fibrous have no movement

SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Joint types l l l Which moves in only one direction? Hinge Which type is the elbow? Hinge Make sure to know movements of each and examples of each in body

Range of Motion l l Measured with a goniometer Measure: – – – o Depression and elevation o Rotation and circumduction o Flexion and extension (and hyperextension) o Abduction and adduction o Plantar flexion and dorsiflexion

Muscle contraction: Power stroke follows: ATP molecule which is bound to the myosin head is hydrolyzed to ADP + Pi. It (ADP) remains for the moment on the myosin head. The energy released by this process causes the myosin head to swivel. (Actually, it straightens out. ) Activated myosin head will now bind to the actin, forming a cross bridge. This formation is a spontaneous reaction. In the process, the ADP + Pi is released and the head flexes (to a bent, lower energy position), causing the thin filament to be pulled along the myosin. Myosin head remains bound until a new ATP molecule binds to it. The next (new) ATP causes the head to be released from the actin, thus allowing the head to repositioned for another power stroke. l l Sliding filament theory = shortening of the sarcomere in an "all-or-none" pattern. Refer to rope climbing analogy. REMEMBER THAT ONLY THE SARCOMERE SHORTENS, NOT THE PROTEIN FIBERS.

Muscle contraction l Process of myosin heads form cross bridges with actin filaments, when do they detach?

l l In presence of ATP So what is rigor mortis? ? ?

Muscle contraction l Which ions would placing muscle fiber in create best contraction? Why?

Answer: l Calcium and ATP l Ca 2+ binds to the troponin, causing a shift of the tropomyosin. ATP needed to release after powerstroke l

Narrowed Arteries l l How does doppler ultrasound reveal arteries that are narrowed? Doppler ultrasound uses reflected sound waves to assess blood flow through a vessel. You can use a doppler device to listen to blood moving through the vessels of the arm and ankle, and use systolic pressure values to compute an Ankle Brachial Index (ABI) and determine overall Peripheral Artery Disease.

Stroke volume vs. cardiac output l l Cardiac output is a measure of how much blood is pumped by both ventricles in one minute. It is computed by multiplying your heart rate by the stroke volume, the amount of blood being pumped out of the heart with each heart beat. On average, the stroke volume remains relatively stable at 75 ml/beat. Cardiac output (ml/min) = stroke volume (ml/beat) x heart rate (beats/min)

How to test for different blood types? l If I dripped the serum into different blood types, what would I observe – – l l Anti – A serum Anti – B serum A – agglutination with anti A B – agglutination with anti B AB – agglutination with anti. A and anti. B O – no agglutination

Unit 5 l Protection

Different types of bone l Spongy bone vs. Compact bone

-Spongy – has trabeculae, marrow -Compact – has osteocytes, canaliculi, haversian canal

Bone fractures l l Patient comes to visit orthopedic surgeon with leg/hip pain - revealed fractured femur, near hip. How would you describe it? Superior femoral fracture, proximal femoral fracture, distal femoral fracture, lateral femoral fracture

Skin - burns l l Know different degrees of burns For example, – Red, blistered, painful skin = ?

– Second degree - involve the epidermis and part of the dermis layer of skin. The burn site appears red, blistered, and may be swollen and painful.

Bone formation l l Ossification is the formation of bone by the activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts and the addition of minerals and salts. Calcium compounds must be present for ossification to take place. Osteoblasts do not make these minerals, but must take them from the blood and deposit them in the bone. By the time we are born, many of the bones have been at least partly ossified. Usually, osteoclasts exist in small but concentrated masses, and once a mass of osteoclasts begins to develop, it usually eats away at the bone for about three weeks, eating out a tunnel that may be as large as 1 millimeter in diameter and several millimeters in length. At the end of this time the osteoclasts disappear and the tunnel is invaded by osteoblasts instead; then new bone begins to develop, Bone

How do our hormones help maintain calcium levels? l Other hormones play a part in maintaining the strength and health of the bone matrix by functioning to control the level of blood calcium. In fact, calcium is needed for a number of metabolic processes other than for bone formation, including blood clot formation, nerve impulse conduction, and muscle cell contraction. When a low blood calcium condition exists, the parathyroid glands respond by releasing parathyroid hormone (PTH). This hormone stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone tissue, and as a result, calcium salts are released into the blood. On the other hand, if the blood calcium level is excessively high, the thyroid gland responds by releasing a hormone called calcitonin. Its effect is opposite that of parathyroid hormone; it inhibits osteoclast activity allowing osteoblasts to form bone tissue. As a result, the excessive calcium is stored in bone matrix. The actions of these hormones are both excellent examples of some important negative feedback loops present in our bodies (Figure 7). Without adequate supplies of these important chemicals, the bones will not develop or grow normally.

Oh no…another Feedback loop… l Low calcium levels in the blood Release of parathyroid hormone by the parathyroid gland Osteoclasts dissolve bone Increased calcium levels in the blood

Types of fractures l l l l o Comminuted o Depression o Compression o Transverse o Oblique o Spiral o Greenstick o Open vs. closed

Bone fractures - repaired l l l l Step 1 – Hematoma Formation Blood vessels that are ruptured during the break swell to form a mass called a hematoma. This mass forms between the broken bones. o Step 2 – Fibrocartilage Callus Formation New capillaries begin to form into the clotted blood in the damaged area. Connective tissues cells form a mass of repair tissue called a fibrocartilage callus. This callus contains some cartilage, some bone and collagen fibers and the combined mass closes the gap between the broken bones. o Step 3 – Bony Callus Formation The fibrocartilage callus is gradually replaced by one made of spongy bone. This new mass is referred to as the bony callus. Osteoclasts and osteoblasts move to the area and multiply. o Step 4 – Bone Remodeling Over the weeks and months to come, the callus is remodeled with the help of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. The shape of the bones will gradually return to normal and there will eventually be little evidence of the fracture.

Unit 6 l Homeostasis

Surviving extremes l l Review projects about the following: Jungle, High Seas, Desert, Underwater, High Altitude, Outer space For example – how will persons body adapt to challenge of climbing to high elevations in Denver? – – Increase blood pressure and heart rate immediately Increase production of red blood cells and capillaries to deliver more oxygen