GREEN FIEND Mr Mohammed A Jaber BLOOD FILM

GREEN FIEND Mr. Mohammed A. Jaber BLOOD FILM 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Aim of blood smear • Value of blood films: • Examination of thin blood films is important in the investigation and management of anaemia, infections, and other conditions which produce changes in the appearance of blood cells and differential white cell count. • A blood film report can provide rapidly and at low cost, useful information about a patient’s condition. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Making blood films Three basic steps to make blood film: 1. Preparation of blood smear. 2. Fixation of blood smear. 3. Staining of blood smear. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND 1. Blood Smear Preparation 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Blood Smear Preparation • Three methods may be used to make blood smears: 1. The cover glass smear. 2. The wedge smear. 3. The spun smear. • The spun smear requires an automatic slide spinner. • For the purpose of this lab exercise, we will use the wedge smear. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND WEDGE BLOOD SMEAR • Specimen: § Peripheral blood smear made from EDTAanticoagulated blood. § Smears should be made within 1 hour of blood collection from EDTA specimens stored at room temperature to avoid distortion of cell morphology § Blood smears can also be made from finger stick blood directly onto slide. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND • Equipment • Spreaders • Clean slides • Applicator stick wood • Blood capillary tube or micropipette 10 µL 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Procedure: 1. Fill a capillary tube three-quarter full with the anticoagulated specimen or a wooden stick. 2. Place a drop of blood, about 2 mm in diameter approximately an inch from the frosted area of the slide. 3. Place the slide on a flat surface, and hold the narrow side of the non frosted edge between your left thumb and forefinger. 4. With your right hand, place the smooth clean edge of a second (spreader) slide on the specimen slide, just in front of the blood drop. 5. Hold the spreader slide at a 30° angle, and draw it back against the drop of blood. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Procedure: 6. Allow the blood to spread almost to the edges of the slide. 7. Push the spread forward with one light, smooth, and fluid motion. A thin film of blood in the shape of a bullet with a feathered edge will remain on the slide. 8. Label the frosted edge with patient name, ID# and date. 9. Allow the blood film to air-dry completely before staining. (Do not blow to dry. The moisture from your breath will cause RBC artifact. ) 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Steps for Blood Film 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND The shape of blood film 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND The shape of blood film 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Characteristics of A Good Smear: 1. A good blood film preparation will be thick at the drop end and thin at the opposite end. 2. The blood smear should occupy the central portion of the slide. 3. The blood smear should not touch the edges. except for point of application. 4. Should be margin free 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Procedure notes 1. As soon as the drop of blood is placed on the glass slide, the smear should be made without delay. Any delay results in an abnormal distribution of the white blood cells, with many of the large white cells accumulating at the thin edge of the smear. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND The thickness of the spread when pulling Is determined by: 1. The angle of the spreader slide. (the greater the angle, the thicker and shorter the smear). 2. Size of the blood drop. 3. Speed of spreading 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND The thickness of the spread notes 1. If the hematocrit is increased, increased the angle of the spreader slide should be decreased. 2. If the hematocrit is decreased, decreased the angle of the spreader slide should be increased. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND The thickness of the spread notes 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Common causes of a poor blood smear 1. Drop of blood too large or too small. 2. Spreader slide pushed across the slide in a jerky manner. 3. Failure to keep the entire edge of the spreader slide against the slide while making the smear. 4. Failure to keep the spreader slide at a 30° angle with the slide. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Common causes of a poor blood smear 5. Failure to push the spreader slide completely across the slide. 6. Irregular spread with ridges and long tail: Edge of spreader dirty or chipped; dusty slide. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Common causes of a poor blood smear 7. Holes in film: Slide contaminated with fat or grease and air bubbles. 8. Cellular degenerative changes: Delay in fixing, inadequate fixing time or methanol contaminated with water. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND A: Blood film with jagged tail made from a spreader with a chipped end. B: Film which is too thick C: Film which is too long, too wide, uneven thickness and made on a greasy slide. D: A well-made blood film 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Examples of unacceptable smears 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

Comment GREEN FIEND • Although this is the easiest and most popular methods for producing a blood smear, it does not produce a quality smear. – The WBCs are unevenly distributed and RBC distortion is seen at the edges – Smaller WBCs such as lymphocytes tend to reside in the middle of the feathered edge. – Large cells such as monocytes, immature cells and abnormal cells can be found in the outer limits of this area. • Spun smears produce the most uniform distribution of blood cells. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND 2. SLIDE FIXATION & STAINING LEISHMAN'S STAIN 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Fixing the films • To preserve the morphology of the cells, films must be fixed as soon as possible after they have dried. • It is important to prevent contact with water before fixation is complete. • Methyl alcohol (methanol) is the choice, although ethyl alcohol ("absolute alcohol") can be used • Methylated spirit (95% ethanol) must not be used as it contains water. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

I. Fixing the films GREEN FIEND • To fix the films, place them in a covered staining jar or tray containing the alcohol for 2 -3 minutes. • In humid climates it might be necessary to replace the methanol 2 -3 times per day; the old portions can be used for storing clean slides. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND II. Staining the film Romanowsky staining: • Romanowsky stains are universally employed for staining blood films and are generally very satisfactory. • There a number of different combinations of these dyes, which vary, in their staining characteristics. 1. May-Grunwald-Giemsa is a good method for routine work. 2. Giemsa stain is thought to produce more delicate staining characteristics. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Romanowsky stains 3. Wright's stain is a simpler method. 4. Leishman's is also a simple method, which is especially suitable when a stained blood film is required urgently or the routine stain is not available (e. g. at night). 5. Field's stain is a rapid stain used primarily on thin films for malarial parasites. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Romanowsky Principle The main components of a Romanowsky stain are: • A cationic or basic dye (methylene blue or its oxidation products such as azure B), B which binds to anionic sites and gives a blue-grey color to nucleic acids (DNA or RNA), RNA nucleoproteins, granules of basophils and weakly to granules of neutrophils • An anionic or acidic dye such as eosin Y or eosin B, which binds to cationic sites on proteins and gives an orange-red color to hemoglobin and eosinophil granules 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

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GREEN FIEND Leishman's stain Principle It’s like Romanowsky Principle Leishman's stain : a polychromatic stain • Methanol : fixes cells to slide • methylene blue stains RNA, DNA === blue-grey color • Eosin stains hemoglobin, eosin granules === orange-red color • p. H value of phosphate buffer is very important 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

Staining Procedure GREEN FIEND • Thin smear are air dried. • Flood the smear with stain. • Stain for 1 -5 min. Experience will indicate the optimum time. • Add an equal amount of buffer solution and mix the stain by blowing an eddy in the fluid. • Leave the mixture on the slide for 10 -15 min. • Wash off by running water directly to the centre of the slide to prevent a residue of precipitated stain. • Stand slide on end, and let dry in air. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND PH of the phosphate buffer • The phosphate buffer controls the PH of the stain. If the PH is too acid, those cells or cell parts taking up an acid dye stain will stain pinker and the acid components that stain with the basic dye show very pale staining. • If the stain –buffer mixture is alkaline, the red blood cells will appear grayish blue and the white cell nuclei will stain very deeply purple. • Therefore, to stain all cells and cell parts well, the PH of the phosphate buffer is critical. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND too acidic suitable 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 too basic GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Notes on the staining procedure: • The staining rack must be exactly level to guard against uneven staining of the smear. • Insufficient washing of the smears when removing the stain and buffer mixture may cause stain precipitate on the dried smear. • Excessive rinsing of the stained smear will cause the stain to fade. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Notes on the staining procedure: • Whichever method is used, it is important to select dyes that are not contaminated with other dyes or metallic salts. • Staining time must be specific for each lot of stains and so we must follow the kit procedure. • Bone marrow time staining must be increased. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Examination Blood Smear 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Examination blood smear 1. Checking the blood smear is it good or not 2. Making WBCs estimate 3. Making WBCs Differential & Platelet estimation 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND 1. Checking Blood Smear • When completely dry, examine the smear with the microscope as follows: Observations Under (× 10) Low power • Determine the overall staining quality of the blood smear. 1. Determine if there is a good distribution of the cells on the smear. 2. Scan the edges and center of the slide to be sure there are no clumps of RBCs, WBCs or platelets. 3. In scanning the smear it is important to note anything unusual or irregular, such as rouleaux or RBC clumping. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Observations Under × 10 4. There should be no stain precipitate present on smear. 5. Stain should not be too dark or too pale. A. RBCs should be appropriate color of reddish pink. B. Lymphocytes have dark purple nuclei with varying shades of blue cytoplasm. C. Neutrophils have dark purple nuclei with reddish, granular cytoplasm. D. Monocytes have a lighter purple nucleus with a gray-blue cytoplasm. E. Eosinophils have bright red/orange granules. F. Basophils have dark purple nuclei and granules. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Staining faults • Too faint: 1. Staining time too short. 2. Excessive washing after staining. • Stain deposit: 1. Stain solution left in uncovered jar. 2. Stain solution not filtered. 3. Dirty slides. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Staining characteristics of a correctly stained normal film: Nuclei Purple Cytoplasm Erythrocytes Deep pink Neutrophils Orange-pink Lymphocytes Blue; some small lymphocytes deep blue Monocytes Grey-blue Basophils Blue Granules Neutrophils Fine purple Eosinophils Red-orange Basophils Purple-black Monocytes Fine reddish (azurophil) • Platelets Purple 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

Observing direction: GREEN FIEND Observe one field and record the number of WBC according to the different type then turn to another field in the snake-liked direction *avoid repeat or miss some cells 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND 2. Making WBCs estimation Observations Under× 40 x: • Using the × 40 high dry with no oil. 1. Find an optimal area for the detailed examination and enumerations of cells. A. The RBCs should not quite touch each other. B. There should be no area containing large amounts of broken cells or Precipitated stain. C. The RBCs should have a graduated central pallor. D. Nuclei and cytoplasm of WBCs should be the proper color. E. Platelets should be clearly visible. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND 2. Making WBCs estimation 2. Count 10 fields, take the total number of white cells and divide by 10. 3. To do a WBC estimate by taking the average number of white cells and multiplying by 2000. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND 3. Observations Under × 100: Platelet Estimates 1. Use the oil immersion lens estimate the number of platelets per field. 2. Look at 5 -6 fields and take an average. 3. Multiply the average by 20, 000. 4. Note any macroplatelets. • Platelets per oil immersion field (OIF) 1) <8 platelets/OIF = decreased 2) 8 to 20 platelets/OIF = adequate 3) >20 platelets/OIF = increased 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

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GREEN FIEND 3. MANUAL DIFFERENTIAL Principle v A stained smear is examined in order to determine the percentage of each type of leukocyte present and assess the erythrocyte and platelet morphology. v Increases in any of the normal leukocyte types or the presence of immature leukocytes or erythrocytes in peripheral blood are important diagnostically in a wide variety of inflammatory disorders and leukemia. v Erythrocyte abnormalities are clinically important in various anemia's. v Platelet size irregularities are suggestive of particular thrombocyte disorders. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND MANUAL DIFFERENTIAL • Reagents, supplies and equipment: 1. Manual cell counter designed for differential counts 2. Microscope, immersion oil and lens paper 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

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GREEN FIEND 3. Manual Differential Counts • These counts are done in the same area as WBC and platelet estimates with the red cells barely touching. • This takes place under × 100 (oil) using the zigzag method. • Count 100 WBCs including all cell lines from immature to mature. • Reporting results Absolute number of cells/µl = % of cell type in differential x white cell count 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Observing and Recording Nucleated Red Blood Cells (n. RBCs) • If 10 or more nucleated RBC's (NRBC) are seen, correct the • White Count using this formula: Corrected WBC Count = WBC x 100/( NRBC + 100) Example : If WBC = 5000 and 10 NRBCs have been counted Then 5, 000× 100/110 = 4545. 50 The corrected white count is 4545. 50. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Reference values vary depending on age: Cell Type Birth 1 mo Total WBC x 103/µL 10 -26 5 -19. 5 4. 3 -13. 5 Neutrophils % 37 -57 25 -35 45 -55 50 -65 Lymphocyte % 25 -35 50 -65 35 -45 30 -40 Monocyte % 3 -9 2. 5 -7. 5 0 -8 0 -10 Eosinophil % 1 -3 1 -4 0 -4 Basophil % 0 -1 0 -1 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 6 yr 14 yr and ↑ 4. 5 -11. 0 GREENFIEND

White blood cells GREEN FIEND • Leukocytes are classified into two main groups; granulocytes and nongranulocytes (also known as agranulocytes). • 1. The granulocytes, ( neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophiles), have granules in their cell cytoplasm. • Also have multilobed nucleus. As a result they are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes or "polys“ • The nuclei of neutrophils also appear to be segmented, so they may also be called segmented neutrophils or “segs“. • 2. The nongranulocyte, (lymphocytes and monocytes), do not have granules and have nonlobular nuclei. They are sometimes referred to as mononuclear leukocytes. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

Leukocytosis GREEN FIEND • Leukocytosis, a WBC above 10, 000 is usually due to an increase in one of the five types of white blood cells and is given the name of the cell that shows the primary increase. 1. Neutrophilic leukocytosis = neutrophilia 2. Lymphocytic leukocytosis = lymphocytosis 3. Eosinophilic leukocytosis = eosinophilia 4. Monocytic leukocytosis =monocytosis 5. Basophilic leukocytosis = basophilia 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

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GREEN FIEND 1. Neutrophils • Neutrophils are so named because they are not well stained by either eosin, a red acidic stain, or by methylene blue, a basic or alkaline stain. • Neutrophils are also known as "segs", "PMNs" or "polys" (polymorphonuclear). • They are the body's primary defense against bacterial infection. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Neutrophils: • Normally, most of the neutrophils circulating in the bloodstream are in a mature form, with the nucleus of the cell being divided or segmented. Because of the segmented appearance of the nucleus, neutrophils are sometimes referred to as "segs. " • The nucleus of less mature neutrophils is not segmented, but has a band or rod-like shape. Less mature neutrophils - those that have recently been released from the bone marrow into the bloodstream - are known as "bands" or "stabs". 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Segmented neutrophile Band neutrophil Shift to left Increased bands mean acute infection, usually bacterial. Shift to right Increased hypersegmented neutrophile. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Increased neutrophils count (neutrophilia) 1. Acute bacterial infection. 2. Many inflammatory processes. 3. During physical stress. 4. With tissue necrosis. 5. Granulocytic leukemia. Decreased neutrophil count (neutropenia) 1. Typhoid fever 2. Brucellosis 3. Viral diseases, including hepatitis, influenza, rubella, and mumps. 4. A great infection can also deplete the bone marrow of neutrophils. 5. Many drugs used to treat cancer produce bone 6. marrow depression. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

BAND NEUTROPHIL GREEN FIEND Cytoplasm : pink Granules: primary secondary Nucleus: dark purple blue dense chromatin 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

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SEGMENTED NEUTROPHIL GREEN FIEND Cytoplasm : pink Granules: primary secondary Nucleus: dark purple blue dense chromatin 2 -5 lobes 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND SEGMENTED NEUTROPHIL 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND 2. Eosinophils • The most common reasons for an increase in the eosinophil count are Allergic reactions such as hay fever, asthma, or drug hypersensitivity. 1. Parasitic infection 2. Eosinophilic leukemia 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Eosinophils Cytoplasm : full of granules Granules: large refractile, orange-red Nucleus: blue dense chromatin 2 lobes like a pair of glass 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

Eosinophil 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREEN FIEND GREENFIEND

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3. Basophils GREEN FIEND – The purpose of basophils is not completely understood. – Basophils are phagocytes and contain heparin, histamines, and serotonin. – Tissue basophils are also called" mast cells. – Basophile counts are used to analyze allergic reactions. – An alteration in bone marrow function such as leukemia or Hodgkin's disease may cause an increase in basophils. – Corticosteroid drugs may cause the body's small basophile numbers to decrease. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND BASOPHIL Cytoplasm : pink Granules: dark blue – black obscure nucleus Nucleus: blue 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND BASOPHIL 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

4. Lymphocytes GREEN FIEND • Lymphocytes are the primary components of the body's immune system. They are the source of serum immunoglobulins and of cellular immune response. • Two types of lymphocytes: 1. B lymphocyte : Humoral immunity 2. T lymphocyte : Cellular immunity 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

Lymphocytes: GREEN FIEND Lymphocytes increase (lymphocytosis) in: 1. Many viral infections 2. Tuberculosis. 3. Typhoid fever 4. Lymphocytic leukemia. A decreased lymphocyte (lymphopenia) count of less than 500 places a patient at very high risk of infection, particularly viral infections. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

Lymphocytes: GREEN FIEND Diameter: small 7 -9 large 12 -16 Cytoplasm: medium blue Granules: small agranular Large a few primary granules. Nucleus: dark blue round dense chromatin 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Lymphocyte: 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

5. Monocytes GREEN FIEND • Monocytes are the largest cells in normal blood. They act as phagocytes in some inflammatory diseases and are the body's second line of defense against infection. • • • Diseases that cause a monocytosis include: • Tuberculosis • Brucellosis • Malaria • Rocky Mountain spotted fever. • Monocytic leukemia • Chronic ulcerative colitis 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND Monocytes Cytoplasm : grey blue Granules: dust-like lilac color granules Nucleus: blue large irregularly shaped and folded 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

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Notes: GREEN FIEND 1. A well-made and well-stained smear is essential to the accuracy of the differential count. The knowledge and ability of the cell morphologist is critical to high-quality results. 2. Before reporting significant abnormalities such as blasts, malaria or other significant finding on a patient’s differential, ask a more experienced tech to review the smear for confirmation. In clinical settings where a pathologist or hematologist is present, the smear is set aside for Pathologist Review. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND 3. If disrupted cells are present such as smudge cells or basket cells, not them on the report. It may be necessary to make an albumin smear to prevent the disruption of the cells. RBC morphology and WBC morphology must always be performed on the nonalbumin smear. 4. When the WBC is very low (below 1, 000/µL), it is difficult to find enough WBCs to perform a 100 -cell differential. In this situation, a differential is usually performed by counting 50 cells. A notation on the report must be made that only 50 white cells were counted. Multiply each percentage x 2. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND 5. When the WBC is very high (>50, 000/µL), a 200 -cell diff may be performed to increase the accuracy of the diff. The results are then divided by 2 and a note made on the report that 200 white cells were counted. 6. Never hesitate to ask questions concerning morphology or the identification of cells. The differential is one of the most difficult laboratory tests to learn. In fact, learning about cells and their morphology is a process that continues for as long as you perform differentials. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND

GREEN FIEND 7. It is permissible to use a 50 x objective to perform a differential, however keep the following points in mind: 1) If the WBC is increased, you should use the 100 x to ensure that you will not skip cells in a field. 2) If you are having trouble identifying a cell, you must switch to the 100 x in order to get a more detailed view. 1234 Sample Street, Anytown, St. 12345 GREENFIEND