Governement Pattern Xavier Blanco Xavier Blancouab cat Universitat

Governement Pattern Xavier Blanco Xavier. Blanco@uab. cat Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona

The Structure of a Government Pattern The notion of government pattern will be characterized in six steps: • General remarks (1) • The diathesis of L (2) • SSynt elements that express the given DSynt. A of L (3) • Formal means for realizing the given SSynt. A of L (4) • Expressibility of Sem. As of L (5) • Constraints on the realizations of SSynt. As of L (6)

General Remarks A government pattern [= GP] of the LU L of language L specifies the correspondences between L’s Sem. A slots, DSynt. A slots, SSynt. A slots and surface linguistic means (including morphological ones) of actant expression. Metaphorically speaking, the GP “pierces vertically” the four levels of linguistic representation. A GP of L is written as a rectangular table: each column corresponds to a DSynt. Ai slot of L and each row —to a surface means mj that can express this DSynt. Ai(L); the GP table also includes a special first row: the headline. A GP column i contains the following information: • In the headline of the table, the cell i specifies the correspondence between the respective Sem. Ak slot and the DSynt. Ai slot: for instance, X I, Y III, etc. This correspondence of Sem. A slots to DSynt. A slots of L is called the diathesis of L. A Sem. Ak slot of L is identified by the semantic variable that appears in the semantic decomposition (= lexicographic definition) of L; a DSynt. Ai slot of L is identified by the number of the DSynt relation that subordinates the corresponding DSynt. Ai.

General Remarks • In the body of the table, a cell i fulfils two tasks: — It specifies one particular linguistic means mj for the expression of DSynt. Ai on the surface, indicating its SSynt role, its part of speech and its morphological form (if any), for instance: dir-obj VINF indir-obj to N obl-obj NINSTR modif Adj [an infinitival phrase as a Direct Object] [a TO phrase as an Indirect Object] [a noun phrase in the instrumental as an Oblique Object] [an adjectival phrase as a modifier] — It indicates the obligatory character of DSynt. Ai by the mark oblig(atory). The absence of this mark means by default that DSynt. A in question is optional (except for DSynt. A I, which in principle is always obligatory with a finite verb form—at least in languages of the Standard Average European type).

The Diathesis of L Definition 13. 2: Diathesis [= Def. 12. 8, p. 00] The diathesis of an LU L is the correspondence between the Semantic and the Deep Syntactic actantial slots of L. Let it be emphasized that: • Diathesis is a lexical concept in the sense that L’s basic, or lexicographic, diathesis is ascribed to L in the lexicon and does not change with different uses of L. However, it can be changed by an inflectional “operator: ” for instance, by a grammeme of voice or of a related inflectional category, duly expressed by an affix or an auxiliary LU. A binary diathesis, of the form X I | Y II, has 11 different modifications plus the basic one; this means that there are 12 theoretically possible voice grammemes. • Of course not all LUs possess a diathesis, but only those whose signified is a predicate (in the logical sense), i. e. , those which have Sem and DSynt actants.

The Diathesis of L A convenient way to represent the diathesis of an LU L is by a two row table, the upper row reserved for the Sem. A slots, and the lower one, the DSynt. A slots. Consider, for instance, the diathesis of the verb SEE; its meaning can be represented by the following expression: (X sees Y) (X perceives Y with X’s eyes, perceiving made possible by light) Since we say IX [Subject] see you. Y [Dir. O], the diathesis of SEE is as follows: X Y I II

like [Subject]IX The Diathesis of L The English verb LIKE and its French equivalent PLAIRE have the same Sem. A slots (X, who feels the pleasure, and Y, who is the cause and the “target” of this pleasure), but their respective diatheses are converse with respect to each other: (since [to] PLAIRE LIKE Fr. Il. Y [Subject] me. X [Indir. O] plait, where the symbol “ ” indicates the equivalence). Still another pair of the same type is [to] MISS vs. Fr. MANQUER, since IX [Subject] miss him. Y [Dir. O] Il. Y [Subject] me. X [Indir. O] manque. X Y I II X Y II I

The Diathesis of L Definition 13. 3: Basic diathesis The basic diathesis of an LU L is the diathesis of L to be stored in its syntactics in the lexical entry for L. It is taken for granted that the basic (= lexicographic) form of every LU of a language always can be established beyond reasonable doubt. The diathesis of this basic form of L is the basic diathesis of L. Inside of a GP, L’s diathesis is represented as a standard inter level correspondence: by means of the “ ” symbol. A cell in the headline of a GP can contain an expression of one of the following four forms: 1. X I, G(L), or remain empty. 2. X + Y I, 3. Sem. A 1(Y) III, 4. Y

The Diathesis of L • The expression of the form X I, Y III, etc. illustrates the prototypical correspondence between the Semantic and the Deep Syntactic actant slots of the headword L, as in Alain. X I wrote. L a novel. Y II • The expression of the form X + Y I means that the two Sem. A slots taken together corres pond to one DSynt. A slot, as in Alain. X and Helen. Y kissed. L passionately, where the coordinated phrase Alain and Helen constitutes DSynt. A I of the reciprocal verb [to] KISS. (This is fusion of Sem. As) • The expression of the form Sem. A 1(Y) III means that DSynt. A III corresponds to Sem. A slot 1 of Y(L), not to a Sem. A slot of L itself, as in Fr. Alain. X I baise. L la main. Y II à Helen. Sem. A 1(Y) III lit. (Alain kisses the hand to Helen), where Helen is DSynt. A III of BAISER ([to] kiss [a hand]) and corresponds to Sem. A slot 1 of (hand) (= to the Owner of the body part involved).

The Diathesis of L • The expression of the form Y G(L) means that Sem. A slot 2 of L is expressed by the syntactic Governor of L, as in Alain’s. X I heart 2 L sank. Y G(L) at the look. Z III on her face, where the verb SINK means (psychological pain) and realizes Sem. A (Y) of HEART 2; • The cell in the headline remains empty if the corresponding cell in the body of the table contains a semantically empty expression, i. e. , a dummy SSynt element, which does not represent a DSynt. A of L: It dawned. L upon me. Y II that today was. X I a Saturday. Thus, a DSynt. A slot of L can correspond 1) to a Sem. A slot of L, 2) to a union of two Sem. A slots of L, or 3) to a Sem. A slot of a Sem. A of L.

The SSynt elements Corresponding to the DSynt. As of L The surface expression of a DSynt. A of L can be either a separate LU L´ (the general case) or part of a compound, in particular, of an incorporation (the special case). On the one hand, a DSynt. A(L) can be implemented by L´ that is, as a rule, a SSynt. A(L), but also can be L’s SSynt Circumstantial or SSynt Modifier, or else a conjoined element; therefore, in a cell of a GP we can find diverse SSynt relations of L: — actantial SSynt. Rels such as ‑subj(ectival) (Dick. I is writing) ‑dir(ect) obj(ectival) (is writing a letter. II) ‑indir(ect) obj (sent Dick. III a letter) ‑infin(itival) obj (He decided to see. II Granada) ‑agent(ive) (written by Dick. II) ‑prepos(itional) (in the letter. II)

The SSynt elements Corresponding to the DSynt. As of L — non actantial SSynt. Rels such as ‑modif(icative) ‑appos(itive) ‑compos(itive) (American. I protection) (Fr. assurance maladie. III) (bread. II line or installation. II guide) All these SSynt elements of the sentence —shown in boldface in the examples above— can realize a DSynt. A.

The SSynt elements Corresponding to the DSynt. As of L On the other hand, a DSynt. A(L) L´ can be implemented as a dependent part of a compound 1 whose base is L and thus pass under the jurisdiction of the morphology. This happens in languages that have a developed system of productive compounding, like German: eine Reise nach Berlin [II] (a trip to Berlin) lit. (a Berlin trip) Geschichte der Sprache Sprachgeschichte eine Berlinreise [II] (history of the language) lit. (language history) Verarbeitung von Texten [II] (processing of texts) Textverarbeitung lit. (text processing)

Linguistic Means for the Surface Realization of DSynt. As L stands, as elsewhere, for the headword, L´ is the considered DSynt. A of L. and m, the surface expression means applied to L´. The means m can mark the expression of a DSynt. A of L on three levels of linguistic representation: • In the DSynt. S; here m is a grammeme (e. g. , GER(und)) or a derivateme (e. g. , A 0—a relational adjective). • In the SSynt. S; here m is a preposition, a conjunction, or a combination of the two. • In the DMorph. S; here m is, a case grammeme for a noun, a mood grammeme for a verb, etc.

Linguistic Means for the Surface Realization of DSynt. As The DSynt. A L´ of L can be realized by a linguistic expression means of the following six types, three of them syntactic, i. e. , separate LUs, and three, morphological, i. e. , bound morphemes (in the examples, shading marks the means illustrated): Syntactic expression means 1) m is a governed 2 adposition (= preposition/postposition) or conjunction, such as depend on N, quarrel over N, ask whether PROP, relevant to N, try and V, etc. RELEVANT, adjective (N. B. : Adjectives, as we know, do not have Column I in their GP) Y II 1. to N TRY, verb 1) CII. 2: informal John tried to stop; Try and come! X I 1. N Y II 1. to VINF 2. and V

Linguistic Means for the Surface Realization of DSynt. As German GLAUBEN (believe), verb X I 1. NNOM ANGST (fear. N), noun FÄHIG (capable), adjective Y II 1. an NACC Y II 1. zu VINF X I Y II 1. NNOM 1. an NACC Leo Er glaubt an die Wissenschaft Leo+s Angst vor Gespenster+n fähig zu atm+en lit. (Leo He believes on the science). lit. (Leo’s fear before ghosts) lit. (capable to breathe)

Linguistic Means for the Surface Realization of DSynt. As HABITER (live), verb X I 1. N Y II 1. Locin N en France (in France) au Canada (in Canada) à Paris Jean habite (in Paris) sur l’île de Ré (on the island of Ré) Place des Vosges (on Vosges Square) rue Vaugirard (on Vaugirard Street) chez ses parents (at his parents) …

The Expressibility of Sem. As of L The GP of L also supplies the information about the expressibility of L’s Sem Actants; three cases are distinguished: • Sem. Ai(L) must be expressed—it is obligatory; then the surface means for its expression are specified. • Sem. Ai(L) can be expressed—it is optional; the surface means for its expression are also specified. • Sem. Ai(L) cannot be expressed at all—it is blocked. The obligatory character of an actant is indicated in its column by the mark obligatory; for instance: DEPEND, verb [X depends on Y] X I 1. N Y II 1. on N obligatory

The Expressibility of Sem. As of L The verb DEPEND in a finite form cannot remain without an explicit expression of its Sem. A 2: a. *All elements of a syntactic tree, except for one, depend. To properly express the corresponding content, you have to say something like (3 b c): b. All elements of a syntactic tree, except for one, depend on something. c. All elements of a syntactic tree, except for one, are dependent. NB: The expression It depends! does not contradict our description: it is an idiom.

The Expressibility of Sem. As of L The obligatoriness of an DSynt. Ai(L) in language L 1 can impede using L as a translation equivalent of L´ in L 2, although (L) = (L´), if L´ does not have DSynt. Ai(L´). Thus, the French sentence (4 a) cannot be translated into Russian as (4 b), even if Rus. NASLEDOVAT´ Fr. HÉRITER, both meaning (inherit): a. Fr. Il hériterait ! b. Rus. *On unasleduet! (He would inherit!) The Russian verb requires an obligatory DSynt. A II and cannot be used without it. Since in the French text this DSynt. A is not expressed, NASLEDOVAT´ must be replaced with a synonymous expression: the collocation POLUČIT´ NASLEDSTVO (receive an inheritance): c. Rus. On polučit nasledstvo! (He would receive the inheritance!)

The Constraints on the Expression of SSynt. As of L Semantic restrictions on L´ • The simplest case of semantic restrictions on the LU L´ that receives the surface means m is as follows: L´ should have a particular semantic component that characterizes it as a subclass of all formally possible L´i. Thus, Constraint 2 to the GP of the noun REVULSION is of this type. X I REVULSION, noun (X’s revulsion against Y) Y II 1. N’s 1. against N 2. Aposs 2. at N 3. A 0(N) 3. for N 4. toward(s) N 1) CII. 2 : N denotes a physical event that be seen, heard or smelled 2) CII. 4 : (N) (person) [that is, N denotes people] Constraint 2 disallows (5 a): a. He did it from deep revulsion *toward the bitterness of the sectarian strife. vs. b. (i) He did it from deep revulsion for the bitterness of the sectarian strife. (ii) She felt only revulsion toward this fat bastard.

The Constraints on the Expression of SSynt. As of L Syntactic/Morphological Individual Government Pattern Constraints Syntactic/morphological restrictions express the conditions of use for a given surface expression means m. • A syntactic individual GP constraint can specify the syntactic subclass of a particular m. Thus, the idiom LEND [N] A HAND accepts a TO Indir. O only if this is a non pronominal N: a. Lend him/me a hand! ~ *Lend a hand to him/to me! b. Lend John/these students a hand! ~ Lend a hand to John/to these students! • A syntactic individual GP constraint can also specify the type of the clause in which the surface means m can appear. Thus, consider the verb GIVE used as a support verb, that is, as an Oper 1 or Caus. Func 1. In a main clause it takes a prepositionless Indir. O and does not admit a TO phrase in this role: a. Martha gave John a ride. ~ *Martha gave a ride to John. b. Martha gave John an infection. ~ *Martha gave an infection to John.

The Constraints on the Expression of SSynt. As of L Government Pattern Constraints Concerning Combinations of Expression Means The constraints of this type express the incompatibility or the inseparability either of some DSynt. As of L or that of the respective expression means. Recall that two cases are distinguished: 1) two DSynt. As of L are incompatible/inseparable as such (that is, none of their ms can cooccur or occur without something else); or 2) some particular expressions incompatible/inseparable of two DSynt. As of L are

The Constraints on the Expression of SSynt. As of L Government Pattern Constraints Concerning Combinations of Expression Means Incompatibility • Incompatibility of all means of expression of two DSynt. As of L Practically, this means that the two DSynt. As are incompatible. Thus, with English nouns of the THOUGHT type the expressions of their DSynt. As I and II cannot cooccur: a. The mere thought that. II Alan is here. . . but not *John’s his thought that Alan is here. . . ~ John’s. I his I thought, b. The knowledge that. II Alan is here … but not *John’s his knowledge that Alan is here ~ John’s. I his I knowledge,