Gleitman Gross Reisberg Psychology EIGHTH EDITION Chapter 7
Gleitman • Gross • Reisberg Psychology EIGHTH EDITION Chapter 7 Learning © 2011 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Chapter Pretest • What are Learning Theories? • What is Classical Conditioning? • Please be able to define the terms in Classical Conditioning. • What is Instrumental (or Operant) Conditioning? • Please be able to define the terms in Operant Conditioning.
Chapter Pretest • How will you use Classical and Operant Conditioning in your own life? • What is Observational Learning in Social Learning Theory? • The Neural Basis for Learning • Summary
Learning Theory • Empiricist philosophers argued that learning involves the forming of simple associations. • More complex learning simply involves many associations, layered upon each other. • All learning depends on the same mechanisms and should be governed by the same principles.
Learning Theory q. Theories that address how and why an animal learns something. q. We will look at the this from the point of a Behaviorist. q. These include Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Social Learning Theory, and the GOMS model.
Behaviorism q. A Behaviorist: Someone who is concerned with explaining behavior (or looking at how we learn) primarily through seeing what is observable and measureable. q. The emphasis is on changes seen in behavior that occur as a result of a stimulus-response association made.
Behaviorism q. Behaviors can be learned or unlearned. q. Behaviors are seen as learned habits. q. Thoughts are considered behaviors.
Terms q Stimulus: Anything that is detectable through your senses. These influence behavior, and can vary in intensity, and amount. q. Response: The response directly after the stimulus. q. Example stimulus-response connection with Klaus.
Classical Conditioning q. Let’s start with a very simple way we, and other animals, make and keep stimulusresponse connections. q. We make many. These form our behaviors.
Classical Conditioning • In classical conditioning, animals learn about the association between one stimulus and another. This is very basic. • Before conditioning: • an unconditioned stimulus (US, such as food) • elicits an unconditioned response (UR, such as salivation)
Classical Conditioning • After conditioning: • If the US follows a conditioned stimulus (CS, such as a buzzer) many times, • this CS on its own will soon • evoke the conditioned response (CR; here again, salivation). • https: //youtu. be/qy_m. IEnnl. F 4 • https: //youtu. be/_NSe. YRanbb. U? list=PLGCFr. Ui. Qw d. G-XSO 5 o. ULXTe. NLpj. Moidc. Gf
Klaus q. Let’s use Classical Conditioning to teach Klaus to form stimulus response connections. q. We start with a US and UR. We train this connection first. q. We make the US the CS with CR. q. We pair the CS with a Neutral Stimulus. q. Now the NS becomes a CS.
Extinction: the gradual weakening in the CR • Second-order conditioning • When a CS-US relationship is well established, the CS can be preceded by a second, neutral stimulus. • Trials in which the CS is presented without the US lead to extinction, • but spontaneous recovery shows that the CR is only masked by extinction.
Extinction q. Gradual Decay: Conditioning likely needs continual stimulus-response practice or connection. If not, it can decay over time or the stimulus can lose the “spark” over time. q. The stimulus can become predictable. q. Desensitization where the effect of the stimulus is dulled by over conditioning. This happens when the S-CR is presented several times. The S-CR is gradual for slightly intense to very intense.
Klaus q. Demonstration of Extinction.
Extinction q. Inoculation: The animal is presented with weakened form of the CS-CR relationship so the person or animal finds it very easy to not get upset or caught up in the anxiety of the CS presentation. q. The purpose of inoculation is to attempt to make it so when the person is truly presented with the CS they remember how easy it was to resist the urges to react.
Generalization • Because of stimulus generalization, the CR can also be elicited by stimuli that are similar to the CS. • To train the animal to discriminate among stimuli (to stop generalization) • one stimulus (CS+) is presented with the US, • while another (CS–) is presented without the US.
Habituation • Decrease of behavior in response to stimuli after several presentations of the stimuli. • The stimuli becomes familiar through repeated exposure. • Examples: tuning out a noise, decreasing a fear, being around a familiar scent, what else? • This can generalize to similar stimuli.
Dishabituation q A previously predictable stimulus changes, causing the organism to renew its attention to the stimulus. This is known as a spontaneous recovery. q To reach habituation the stimulus must be presented long enough. q Demonstrate with Klaus.
Operant Conditioning q. B. F. Skinner. q. Deals with operants and respondents. q. A method of learning that occurs through reinforcements and punishments of behaviors (very simple explanation). qhttps: //youtu. be/H 6 LEc. M 0 E 0 io qhttps: //youtu. be/JA 96 Fba-WHk
Contingency Relationship q. Respondents are behaviors that are not in conscious control. q. Operants are those under conscious control. q. Contingency is “if this happens, then this will”, i. e. the cause and effect. This describes the relationships between the stimuli and responses. q. This relationship tells you learning has occurred.
Operants • Operants are voluntary responses, strengthened by reinforcement. • But acquiring them may call for some initial shaping. Shaping is gradually molding or training an animal perform a desired response by reinforcing this animal when they respond how you want. • successive approximations: a series of rewards that provide positive reinforcement for behavior change.
Shaping q. Moving your respondent toward the behavior you want them to exhibit or show. q. Any movement toward that behavior is reinforced similar to Big Bang video. q. Successive approximations: the series of reinforcing toward shaping. qhttps: //youtu. be/k 2 QMn. Nc. Dd 5 k? list=PLk. D 4 keehf. WSsf. KKk 4 E 1 K 1 Rbxu 61 ZTHfoq. Acquistion is the learning or development of a skill.
Schedules of Reinforcement q. How you will reinforce to strengthen or weaken a desired behavior. This is not the same as reward. q. Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement. q. Define. Continuous is done after every introduction of the stimulus. Partial is done after partially or sometimes (every 4 th time, every 5 minutes). q. Which is stronger in the long-term?
Schedules of Reinforcement • Types of Reinforcement Schedules. • schedule of reinforcement • in ratio schedules, reinforcement after a number of responses; the ratio used may be fixed or variable • in interval schedules, reinforcers for the first response made after a given interval (or time frame such as every 5 minutes) since the last reinforcement; this interval can be fixed or variable These schedules can be FIXED or VARIABLE.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement q. In Action qhttps: //youtu. be/JA 96 Fba-WHk q. Klaus Demonstration.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Social Learning Theory q. Albert Bandura. q. Synopsis: People learn through observing other people’s behavior or what is modelled. q. Integration of behavioral learning theory and a cognitive learning theory (different processes in learning can be explained by analyzing mental processed first).
Social Learning Theory q 4 requirements for learning: observing, retaining, reproducing, and motivation. qhttps: //youtu. be/-_U-p. SZw. Hy 8? list=PLqr 46 j. OSo. Ow. Yd. AOJHUHS 4 bhu. Y 6 G 08 sub
Observational Learning • Many animals can learn simply by example. • vicarious conditioning; imitation • The impact of media violence reminds us that imitation can be a source of undesired behaviors as well as a source of new skills.
Thursday q. Extra Credit. q. Bring in a news article showing Classical or Operant Conditioning in action. q. OR q. Train a person or a pet and discuss or show with a brief video.
Varieties of Learning • Evidence suggests animals are biologically prepared to learn certain relations more readily than others. • Similar effects occur in instrumental conditioning. • Some responses are more readily strengthened by some reinforcers than others.
Learning q. Review. q. Class Assignment on Schedules of Reinforcement.
Dishabituation q A previously predictable stimulus changes, causing the organism to renew its attention to the stimulus. This is known as a spontaneous recovery. q To reach habituation the stimulus must be presented long enough. q Lets first look at Classical Conditioning.
Neural Basis of Learning • The neural bases for learning involve diverse mechanisms, such as: • Creation of new synaptic connections. • The brain as experience-dependent. • Learning is a growth mind-set. Your ability to learn and use information is not fixed.
Final Thoughts • Lessons of learning mechanisms can be practically used. • Connections to biological and cognitive mechanisms are very important.
Concept Quiz 1) According to learning theorists, most learning depends on the mechanism of: a) b) c) d) punishment. insight. association. reasoning.
Concept Quiz 2) Imagine a classical conditioning experiment in which you have participants suck on a lemon (which causes puckering and salivating) immediately after you touch the participant’s arm. After many trials, the participants make a puckered face and salivate when you touch them on the arm. In this experiment, what is the unconditioned stimulus? a) b) c) d) the lemon puckering and salivating touching the arm the participant
Concept Quiz 3) What is the “law of effect” in instrumental conditioning? a) If a response is followed by a reward, that response will be strengthened. b) If two stimuli are presented at the same time, an association between the two will be created. c) If an individual (or animal) observes a behavior, that individual (or animal) is likely to imitate the behavior. d) There are biological constraints on which behaviors an individual (or animal) can learn.
Concept Quiz 4) The neural mechanism of learning that increases the responsiveness of a neuron is called: a) b) c) d) activation formation. long-term potentiation. action potential. cortical remapping.
Video Clips
This concludes the presentation slides for Chapter 7 For more learning resources, visit the Study. Space at http: //www. wwnorton. com/college/psychology 8/
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