Function Based Interventions PBIS and North Metro GNETS

Function Based Interventions, PBIS, and North Metro GNETS Student Successes Dr. Cassandra Allen Holifield, North Metro GNETS Director Email: cassandra. holifield@mresa. org Kimberly Thorpe, Metro West Program Specialist Email: kimberly. thorpe@mresa. org Jessica Schuster, North Metro GNETS Behavior Specialist Email: kimberly. thorpe@mresa. org 1

NORTH METRO GNETS

PBIS North Metro GNETS School Wide Expectations: 1. Respect 2. Responsibility 3. Role Model

Tiers of Intervention

FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENTS (FBAs) & BEHAVIOR INTERVENTION PLANS (BIPs) Then what? ? ? 9

FUNCTION BASED INTERVENTIONS

Function-Intervention Matrix Consequence Interventions Prevention/Antecedent Interventions Function Attention Scheduled Exercise Behavioral Momentum Check In / Check Out (CICO or BEP) Effective Instruction Delivery (EID) Modify Environment Scheduled Breaks / Noncontingent Escape Scheduled Rewards / Noncontingent Reinforcement Novel Staff Preferred Items/High-Interest Items Preteaching Proximity Control Reduce Task Demands Self-Modeling Self-Monitoring Visual Cues Praise / Contingent Praise (CP) Reward Desired Behavior / Differential Reinforcement of Alternate Behaviors (DRA) Zero Behavior / Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviors (DRO) Working Through It / Escape Extinction (EE) Ignoring / Extinction X X X Escape X X Sensory X X X X X Tangibles X X

PREVENTION / ANTECEDENT BASED INTERVENTIONS

Antecedents & Antecedent Modifications Antecedent -- the context in which a person behaves Can be a specific stimulus for the behavior Can be other variables within the environment that influence behavior • • Examples of antecedents: � � � Environmental conditions (noise level, temperature, lighting) Social/interactional factors (specific people, type of interaction required by an activity) Curriculum and instruction (task difficulty, presentation of information, task duration) Personal and control issues (preference) Medical/physiological issues (anxiety, hunger, pain, fatigue)

Antecedent Modifications How do you know what antecedent modifications to try? 1. 2. 3. 4. Conduct an FBA Determine function of the behavior Identify relevant antecedent conditions Modify the relevant antecedent conditions in a way that addresses the function of the behavior. Categories of Antecedent-Based Strategies: ü ü ü Modify Instructional Delivery Modify Structure and Organization of the Environment Use Behavior Management (Umbreit, Ferro, Liaupsin, & Lane, 2007)

Scheduled Exercise (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Ø Ø Definition: Scheduled Exercise is used to modify routines and involves the student participating in scheduled physical activities on a daily basis to help deter aggressive behaviors from occuring. Functions Addressed: Escape & Sensory Steps of the Intervention: 1. Conduct an FBA and determine if the function of the student’s behavior is escape or sensory 2. Obtain parent permission for students to participate in physical activity. (No medical concerns) 3. Gather materials needed for intervention: exercise equipment, timers, and reinforcers 4. Each exercise is described and modeled for the students 5. Exercise Breaks are completed across all settings (i. e. , art, music, recess, PE, lunch) 6. Sessions can range from 1 -5 minutes depending on the students every hour with a 20 minute session at arrival and immediately after lunch. 7. Prompts are provided by staff as needed 8. The exercises completed during the breaks are selected at random out of a bucket 9. Praise or reinforcers are given 10. Participation is recorded on exercise chart. Student is responsible for placing a sticker or check mark on chart. 11. Each student could earn up to 7 stickers a day depending on time of school day X 5 days =35 stickers. After 35 stickers student earns a trip to prize box or classroom store etc. Ø Ø � Examples: jumping rope, yoga, slow jogging, leg raises, etc. Data Collection Methods: Frequency count of all occurrences of problem behaviors, or participation chart for all exercise activities (Cannella-Malone, Tullis & Kazee, 2011) *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

Behavioral Momentum (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Ø Definition: Providing a few easy tasks prior to giving the more difficult target tasks. Functions Addressed: Escape Ø Behavioral Momentum (Modifying Instruction) Ø a. 2 x 2=___ 4 x 3=___ 5 x 6=___ 254 x 124=___ 639 x 427=___ b. 345 x 126=___ 399 x 782=___ 2145 x 346=___ 4598 x 2434=___ High-p – more likely to complete Low-p – less likely to complete Ø 1. 2. 3. Steps of the Intervention: Give 3 -5 short mastered tasks using a face pace Praise compliance with each task Then, give the more difficult target task Previous research using behavioral momentum in learning tasks indicates preceding “difficult” tasks with “easier” tasks can also increase accuracy with the difficult tasks Ø � Examples: reading sight words - when preceding target words with below-grade-level words, fluency improves with the target words Data Collection Methods: Data collection sheets. Keep track of requests that result in compliance and requests that do not and make adjustments as needed (Vostal & Lee, 2011) *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

Check In/Check Out (CISCO or BEP) (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Ø Definition: Check In/Check Out is a prevention intervention that includes mentoring, goal setting, regular feedback on appropriate and inappropriate behavior, positive reinforcement, and family engagement. Functions Addressed: Attention Ø Steps of the Intervention: Ø 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Ø � A team determines target behaviors and creates goals to address those behaviors A “checker” is identified. The student checks in with a checker every morning The checker provides the student with the CICO card that lists the behaviors and the point goals for the day The student takes the CICO card to all classes Teachers score the student’s behavior on the CICO card at the end of each class, offering the student immediate feedback on behavior At the end of the day, the student checks out with the checker The checker summarizes the data, gives the student feedback, and administers the reinforcement. The student takes the CICO card home for parents to sign. The next morning, the student returns the signed card to the checker and the CICO cycle starts all over again. Example: EBD student with attention seeking behavior only respects male role models, but he has no male teachers. School coach is identified as the student’s mentor. Student behavioral goals are identified by the IEP team and prevention intervention is established and the coach is the checker and mentor for the student. Data Collection Methods: Point card, CISCO-SWIS point cards are used to determine overall effectiveness of the intervention with the student and overall effectiveness of the intervention within the school (Crone, Horner, & Hawken, 2004) *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

Implementing CICO with Students with Intellectual Disabilities Boden, Ennis, & Jolivette (2012)

Effective Instruction Delivery (EID) (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Ø Ø � Definition: Effective Instruction Delivery (EID) occurs when the teacher effectively engages students in learning by using a variety of instructional strategies in order to meet individual learning needs. Functions Addressed: Escape & Attention Steps of the Intervention: Provide all instructions/directions with the following components: 1. with demanded eye contact (e. g. , “John, look at me”) 2. in close proximity to the child (within 5 feet of the child) 3. as a directive statement (e. g. , “Hand me the Barney book”) 4. with descriptive wording (e. g. , “Put the blue block on the table”) 5. allowing a 5 s wait period following the command for response initiation Example: Teaching to mastery using ex. Universal Design for Learning (UDL), differentiation, and/or learning styles (ex. Visual (spatial), auditory (musical), verbal (linguistic), physical (kinesthetic), logical (mathematical), social (interpersonal), solitary (intrapersonal) Data Collection Methods: Authentic assessments, work samples, rubrics, data collection (Speights-Roberts, Tingstrom, Olmi, & Bellipanni, 2008) *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

Modify Environment (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Ø Ø � Definition: Antecedent modifications to establish a positive, orderly, predictable and motivating classroom environment. Functions Addressed: Attention, Escape, & Sensory Steps of the Intervention: 1. Set up definition of the physical change or routine change of classroom. ◦ What does it look like in the classroom? 2. Set up classroom so that intervention can be successful ◦ What needs to be added or changed in the environment to make the intervention Examples: Attention Examples: � Create specific areas within the classroom in which different behaviors are expected (sitting quietly in the individual work space, talking in the small group space). � Balance activities across the day, activity, or class (e. g. , quiet/noisy, active/passive, large group/small group, adultdirected/learner-directed � Zoning – classroom staff are assigned different areas and activities within the room throughout the day to assist with transitions and encourage on-task behavior. Escape Examples: � Decrease or increase work difficulty � Work time length � Mode of task completion (i. e. instead of writing, student uses computer or tape recorder) � Incorporating student interests (i. e. instead of requiring specific topics of assignments, allow student to integrate their own interests in functional or meaningful ways) Sensory Examples: � Dim the lighting in the classroom � Play calming music during downtimes � Decrease auditory and visual distractions (especially during difficult tasks) Data Collection Methods: ABC, frequency http: //www. interventioncentral. org/ http: //specialed. about. com/od/iep/tp/Data-Collection-For-Individual-Education-Plan-Implementation. htm (Turton, Umbreit, & Mathur, 2011) *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

Scheduled Breaks (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Ø Ø 1. Ø Definition: Temporary removal or break from instructional stimuli that helps to eliminate problematic behavior. Functions Addressed: Escape Steps of the Intervention: Ø Provide an acceptable break from the demand situation on a set schedule, whether behavior occurs or not. Example: Scheduled breaks were provided to a student who exhibited self injurious behaviors prior to transitions. Over time, the time between breaks was increased over time and the problematic behaviors decreased. Data Collection Methods: Frequency, duration *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

Instruction from Novel Staff / Modifying Instruction (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Definition: This function based intervention focuses on the escape function for students who have established a learned history with familiar staff and uses novel staff to conduct instruction instead as an antecedent intervention. Functions addressed: Escape Steps of Intervention: � A functional assessment was given and indicated that tantrums were most likely to occur during “high demand” activities. It was noted that the girl did not have tantrums in the presence of novel staff. � Classroom observations, staff interviews, and data was reviewed � Select staff to be the novel staff for the intervention (more than 4 and none of them should have had previous direct contact with student) � Weekly schedule adjusted to have 1 of them novel staff with student during high demand activities. � Novel staff greets student at activity and completes activity with student while familiar staff removes themselves from the activity � During intervention, contingent consequences for behavior remain to same as in the baseline phase. � Data on frequency and duration is collected weekly and reviewed. Important Notes: Ø Novel Staff should be scheduled to work with student before the behavior begins Ø Novel staff should have no previous contact with student (Luiselli & Murbach, 2002) 22 *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

Preferred Items/ High Interest Items (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Ø Definition: The use of highly preferred or high-interest items/topics embedded within an Ø Steps of the Intervention: existing curriculum is proven to reduce problem behaviors, including aggression and elopement, and increase appropriate, on-task behaviors in school settings for students with both Emotional-Behavior Disorders and Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ø Functions Addressed: Attention, Escape, & Sensory 1. 2. 3. Conduct a Functional Behavior Assessment to determine if the target behavior serves an escape, attention, or access to tangibles function. Identify highly reinforcing or preferred items or topics for the student through preference assessments, observations, parent interviews/questionnaires, or student interviews/questionnaires. Choose a method based on student age, level of cognitive functioning, and severity of behavior. Collect baseline data on frequency or duration of behavior prior to introduction of preferred items to determine how often and for how long access should be given and how this access may vary across the school day. 1. For example, if the data indicate that the student engages in problem behavior 3 times in an hour, he might initially have access to his preferred item(s) 3 or 4 times an hour. Or, if the data show more frequent problem behavior during Math than other periods, he might have more frequent opportunities to access items during Math. 4. 5. Access to preferred or high-interest items or topics (or a choice of several items) should be provided to the student on a fixed schedule (noncontingent on behavior) in a timed break format between work sessions, incorporated into the academic tasks themselves, or as a reward immediately following appropriate behavior. Access to items may be paired with social interaction with staff or peers (for an attention function) or given in isolation (for an escape or tangible function). Used effectively as both an antecedent modification (noncontingent access on a schedule) and a consequence strategy (access provided contingent of appropriate behavior), use of high-interest items/preferred topics should reduce problem behavior, especially when used in conjunction with other function-based interventions, such as verbal praise and proximity control (attention function) or selfmonitoring and scheduled exercise (escape function). (Blair, Umbreit, & Bos, 1999) *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

Preteaching (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Ø Definition: Preteaching usually includes teaching key component skills prior to working with the lesson or unit. It works best when paired with direct instruction. Functions addressed: Escape Ø Steps of Intervention: Ø This intervention will be used if the student is escaping task demand. When examining the Functional Behavior Assessment, you may see a spike in behavior during a specific academic task throughout xthe day (i. e. reading). 1. Gather information on academic skills. This may be a curriculum-based measurement or other academic measurement. 2. Identify problem skill (i. e. vocabulary, fluency, comprehension) 3. Provide daily pre-teaching on that skill – 10 -15 mins. (i. e. teach vocabulary words one day ahead of the text that was to be studied in class) 4. Allow for review before lessons (i. e. index cards) Ø Video Examples: https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=a. JHZ 8 tlb. Z_Y (Burke, Hagan-Burke, & Sugai, 2003) https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=688 tes. Xvmm. Q 24 *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

Proximity Control (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Ø Ø Ø Definition: Proximity control is a frequently used strategy where the teacher (or other adults in the room) make a meaningful effort to be physically near problem areas or target students. Functions addressed: Attention, Escape Steps of Intervention: 1. 2. 3. Ø Set up definition** a. How far away from the student should staff be? Be specific – 3 feet? 2 feet? b. What does it look like during class periods? Desk close to teacher’s desk? Set up classroom so that staff can be successful Move student desk; move teacher desk Examples: Staff attention example: Because David enjoys attention from staff at a high rate and often will engage in inappropriate behavior to get that attention, his teacher has moved his desk close to hers so that she is able to give him a high rate of reinforcement without disrupting the rest of the class. Peer attention example: When Katie sits next to a specific peer, the frequency of her behavior increases. Keeping that in mind, the teacher increases proximity to that peer by placing Katie’s desk on the opposite side of the classroom from the peer. The teacher takes data on this by using momentary time sampling. Escape example: When distressed, Johnny has a tendency to jump up and leave the classroom by the door or the window. In order to reduce this behavior, his teacher has moved his desk away from the door and the window and close to hers, blocking him from being able to leave the classroom easily without her being able to block. (May & Howe, 2013) 25 *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

Reduce Task Demand (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Definition: Tasks triggering behavior are broken down into shorter steps (reducing duration), and given to the student one at a time with individual instructions for each step. Functions addressed: Escape Steps of Intervention: 1. Given smaller units of work 2. Use timer to prompt feedback on work 3. Reinforce on-task behavior with free time after completing set amount of work 4. If problem behavior occurs, redirect back to task (see escape extinction) 5. Thin intervention by adding time to work or reducing free time as successful Examples of Intervention: � � Lower functioning students: Break assignments into 1 -2 tasks at a time. (if a worksheet has 10 problems on it, cut one or two with scissors and present them one at a time) Set up time structures: i. e. : 5 minutes of work, 3 minutes of free time ◦ 2 days of no problem behavior = 6 minutes of work, 3 minutes of free time (Moore, Anderson, & Kumar, 2005) *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

Self Modeling (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Ø Definition: Students repeatedly watch recordings of oneself portraying positive or exemplary behaviors. Functions addressed: Attention, Escape Ø Steps of Intervention: Ø 1. 2. 3. 4. Obtain consent to video tape student. Identify desirable behaviors, or the behavior you want to see the student doing. Gather correct equipment (i. e. i. Pad, camera, etc. ) Create intervention recordings (1 -3 minutes in length) in which students themselves are portraying that behavior. 5. If needed, edit recording so that no interfering behavior is portrayed. 6. Determine environment and time of day for video watching. 7. Determine if reward is necessary. 8. Show video(s) on regular basis. Provide prompting as necessary. 9. Collect progress monitoring data 10. Fade video as necessary Ø • • Examples: For elementary students, video may include clapping noises at the end of videos or a “good job!!” For ASD students or lower functioning students, evaluate level of attention span student has. Significant editing may need to take place in order to show the student exhibiting behavior you want to see. Can also consider looping the video to show the behavior again and again. (Bilias-lolis, et. al. , 2012) 27 *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

Visual Cues (Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*) Ø Ø Ø 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ø Definition: “Visual supports are any tool presented visually that supports an individual as he or she moves through the day. Visual supports might include, but are not limited to, pictures, written words, objects within the environment, arrangement of the environment or visual boundaries, schedules, maps, labels, organization systems, timelines, and scripts. They are used across settings to support individuals with ASD” (National Research Council, 2001). Functions addressed: Escape or Attention or Tangible Steps of Intervention: Conduct a functional behavior assessment to determine the function of behavior Staff determines WHAT information should be presented visually for the student based on function of behavior (Picture Activity schedule, First/Then folder, Reinforcer menu, etc. ) Staff selects one of the following forms of representation, based on student age and level of functioning: a. b. c. d. Present and model for the student how to use visuals specific to the function of behavior, type of activity, and replacement skill (such as use of a First “Math, Then “Computer” board for a student with escape-based self-injury OR use of Behavior reminder cards such as “Quiet Mouth” to remind of expectations and “I am working for…snack with Mrs. Smith” for a student with attention-based vocal disruptions) Gradually fade prompting until the student is fluid in using the visuals across settings Examples: § § Ø objects photographs drawing or picture symbols words/phrases Younger elementary students or those with lower cognitive functioning: An object or picture activity schedule might be used to increase on-task behavior or redirect to task; a First-Then board or folder could be used to represent what task(s) must be completed before reinforcer, preferred activity, or next event; a student might earn a “puzzle piece” for each step of a task to build a full picture of a reinforcer to be earned when all pieces are given. For older, high-functioning, and EBD students (as appropriate): A student with attention-seeking behaviors may be given a number of “Talk Cards” to present throughout the day or week to earn conversations with preferred staff; A student with escape-based elopement might carry a schedule checklist on a clipboard or view on an i. Pad to see how much time is left until the next break, paired with a visual (on desk or wall) of a designated cool-down area that staff could direct the student to when he is feeling overwhelmed, serving as reminder to go to the clinic, not leave the building Data Collection Methods: Ø Frequency and/or duration data should continue to be collected on target behaviors to determine if the intervention plan including use of visual supports is effective in reducing problem behaviors (Haley, Heick, & Luiselli, 2010) *Otherwise known as antecedent modifications

CONSEQUENCE BASED INTERVENTIONS

Consequence Based Interventions � Events or changes in the environment following behavior (Zirpoli & Melloy, 2001) What do you need to do? Ø Focus on manipulating consequences to decrease problem behavior and increase appropriate behavior How do we use consequencebased strategies? 1. 2. 3. Provide the consequence that was reinforcing the problem behavior, but now for the desired behavior. Withhold the consequence (reinforcer) when the problem behavior occurs. Adjust the antecedent conditions to make it more likely the desired behavior will occur. (Umbreit, Ferro, Liaupsin, & Lane, 2007)

Examples of Consequence Based Interventions: ü ü ü Reinforcement Extinction Redirection

Praise / Contingent Praise (Consequence Interventions) Ø Ø Ø 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Ø � Definition: “Specific, contingent praise is a positive statement, typically provided by the teacher, when a desired behavior occurs (contingent) to inform students specifically what they did well. ” (Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, 2008) Functions Addressed: Attention Steps of the Intervention: Conduct an FBA to determine if attention is the function of the student’s behavior Develop a non-intrusive language when providing praise (age appropriate language, cultural sensitive, etc) Provide specific praise immediately after the desired behavior has been demonstrated When providing praise, specifically state the desired behavior being demonstrated (i. e. Good job raising your hand!”) Pair praise with other incentives (ie tangibles) Create an environment that promotes praise Example: A student enters the class during educator-directed instruction; the student quietly walks to his seat. The educator walks over to the student and whispers, “Thank you for coming in the room quietly. ” Non-example: A student enters the class during educator-directed instruction; the student quietly walks to his seat. The educator gives the student a “thumbs up” to recognize the quiet entry. ( This is general and non-verbal. ) (Partin, Robinson, Maggin, Oliver & Wehby 2009)

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA) (Consequence Interventions) Ø Definition: DRA is a reinforcement schedule that withholds reinforcement from the problem behavior, and simultaneously provides reinforcement for engaging in a desired alternative behavior. This will at the same time reduce the problem behavior while increasing the appropriate replacement behavior. Functions Addressed: Escape & Attention Ø Steps of the Intervention: Ø 6. Identify the function of the behavior Identify an appropriate alternative behavior that allows student to access the same function. (i. e. if they want to escape, teach them to ask for a break appropriately; if they want attention, teach them to ask for attention appropriately. ) Pre-teach the skill (this can be done several ways: direct instruction away from other task demands; video modeling; modeling. ) Deliver functional reinforcer (a break or attention) contingent on student using the alternative behavior (the behavior that has been pre-taught) right away. At the same time, if problem behavior occurs, withhold the reinforcement for a set amount of time (ie. 30 secs, 1 min). Thin reinforcement as necessary. Ø Examples: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. § § Ø Alternative Behaviors for attention: Asking for help, asking for peer attention or adult attention. Alternative Behaviors for Escape: Asking for a break at desk or away from desk. ASD or Non-Verbal students: Use picture cards for “break” or “help” or “attention” EBD or higher functioning students: Get creative! Use green/yellow/red cards (green=”I’m okay”; yellow= “I need help/a break within 5 minutes”; red= “I need help/a break right now”) Data Collection Methods: ABC, frequency

Zero Behaviors / Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviors (DRO) (Consequence Interventions) Ø Definition: Reinforcement of an alternative behavior while withholding reinforcement for the inappropriate behavior. Basically this means that you put an undesired behavior on extinction, while simultaneously giving reinforcement to an appropriate behavior. Functions Addressed: Attention Ø Steps of the Intervention: � 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Ø Operationally define the problem behavior Determine highly reinforcing items, activities or social praise Determine current rate of problem behavior Set intervals of reinforcement just below the current interval of time that the student engages in the problem behavior (if the student is engaging in the problem behavior every 5 minutes, set the interval time at 4 minutes) Reinforce after interval time if the student has NOT engaged in the previously defined problem behavior (may engage in other behaviors, but not the behavior decided upon) Increase interval time as student is successful The reinforcer is given as long as the targeted inappropriate behavior does not occur or it is given in the absence of targeted behavior. This serves to directly decrease the inappropriate behavior. Example: Reward student if the behavior is NOT occurring when you watch for it Every 2 minutes – watch for noncompliance Not occurring = attention given Occurring = behavior ignored (Ishuin, T. , 2009) Ø Data Collection Methods: Frequency, interval

Extinction (Working Through it/ Planned Ignoring) (Consequence Interventions) Ø Ø Ø Definition: Reward the behavior you want and “work through” inappropriate behavior when it occurs by briefly removing the task, then starting again. Functions Addressed: Attention, Escape Steps of Intervention: 1. Clearly write out extinction procedures (e. g. , “When the learner does x , we will respond by doing y “) by: 2. Outline an extinction burst safety plan (i. e. , what staff should do when the behaviors get worse before they get better). 3. Discuss the intervention with all adults who are with the learner on a regular basis (e. g. , therapists, paraprofessionals, family members). 4. Explain the intervention procedures to other students who are in close proximity to the student when the interfering behavior occurs (e. g. , in the same class, at lunch). 5. Wait for the behavior to occur and respond by continuing to place the demand. 6. Promote a replacement behavior using a complementary intervention approach such as functional communication training for differential reinforcement of other more appropriate behaviors. 7. Continue to respond as planned during the duration of the behavior. Escape Examples: § For students with ASD, you may pair this with a three step prompt (give verbal demand, give model or demonstration, use hand over hand). § For students with EBD, you may continue presenting the demand without the use of physical assistance. Attention Examples: § Ø Ignore a student’s inappropriate comments, so the student learns that his inappropriate comments no longer elicit a verbal or emotional reaction from the teacher Data Collection Methods: Frequency, Duration, Intensity (Turton, A. , et. al, 2007) 35

SPECIAL THANKS…. 36

QUESTIONS?