Foundations of Research Four sources of knowledge about

Foundations of Research Four sources of knowledge about the world 1 This is a Power. Point Show ü Click “slide show” to start it. ü Click through it by pressing any key. ü Focus & think about each point; do not just passively click. ü To print: ü Click “File” then “Print…”. ü Under “print what” click “handouts (6 slides per page)”. © Dr. David J. Mc. Kirnan, 2015 The University of Illinois Chicago Mc. Kirnan. UIC@gmail. com Do not use or reproduce without permission Cranach, Tree of Knowledge [of Good and Evil] (1472). Public Domain, at Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Austria

Foundations of Research Where does our knowledge come from? Section Overview We have been using different heuristics to think about how science works. We have seen that our entire approach is grounded in a value for critical, open and creative thought. We then develop “content” – findings – based on clear and objective methods. What do we mean by “Content”? What product does science produce? 2

Foundations of Research Where does our knowledge come from? Section Overview We have been using different heuristics to think about how science works. We have seen that science “works” by producing a set of interlocking knowledge sources… …ranging from concrete, specific facts, to more general, universal laws of nature. 3

Foundations of Research Where does our knowledge come from? Section Overview We have been using different heuristics to think about how science works. We have seen that science “works” by producing a set of The center of this interlocking knowledge sources… knowledge structure constitutes the …ranging from concrete, “guts” of scientific research. specific facts, to more general, universal laws of nature. 4

Foundations of Research Where does our knowledge come from? Section Overview We have been using different heuristics to think about how science works. The model of the actual research process we will use proceeds through: …the identification of the larger study issue; …theory and hypothesis development; …and actual data collection. 5

Foundations of Research Where does our knowledge come from? Section Overview We have been using different heuristics to think about how science works. The model of the actual research process we will use proceeds through: Recognizing that …the identification of the irrational thought or larger study issue; bias can always derail – or prevent – …theory and hypothesis an empirical development; approach …and actual data collection. 6

Foundations of Research Where does our knowledge come from? Section Overview We have been using different heuristics to think about how science works. Let’s compliment this discussion with a review of where we get our knowledge from… …as individuals …and in the process of scientific research. 7

Foundations of Research How do we know things? Section Overview How do we know things? §Authority / Tradition §Intuitions §Empiricism; direct experience §Rationalism / theory (Of course there are many ways to think about what ‘knowledge’ is; this is just one convenient system. ) 8

Foundations of Research n Sources of knowledge Authority: 9 “I believe what they tell me” Credible / powerful people Institutions & traditions Culturally important texts: Bible, Quran… Shutterstock. com

Foundations of Research Sources of knowledge, intuition n Authority: “I believe what they tell me” n Intuition: “I believe my Gut feelings” Emotionality or a “hunch” “Emotional IQ” (EIQ) Shutterstock. com 10

Foundations of Research Sources of knowledge, Empiricism n Authority: “I believe what they tell me” n Intuition: “I believe my Gut feelings” n Empiricism: “I believe what I can see” Simple sensation or perception Direct observation; data Image: Shutterstock. com 11

Foundations of Research Sources of knowledge, Rationalism n Authority: “I believe what they tell me” n Intuition: “I believe my Gut feelings” n Empiricism: n Rationalism: “I believe what I can see” “I believe what makes sense. ” Logical coherence Articulation with other ideas Shutterstock 12

Foundations of Research Sources of knowledge, Science n Authority: Credible / powerful people Important social institutions n Intuition: Emotionality or a “hunch” n Empiricism: Simple sensation or perception Direct observation; data These are the most central n Rationalism: Logical coherence Articulation with other ideas All these knowledge sources can contribute to science 13

Foundations of Research Authority-based belief Shutterstock. co m What are some of the things you believe based on authorities? Who or what do you consider to be an “authority” on something? 14

Foundations of Research 15 Authority-based belief Key distinction: Authority Authoritarianism ü Beliefs derived from experience or accumulated knowledge: ü Beliefs derived from strongly held (political, religious, personal…) ideology: • Source of authority is typically evidence-based. • Source of authority is typically person-based. § …derived from a history of studies in a field. § “Authority” in scientific or other field • Amenable to new or conflicting evidence. § Institutional position; Clergy, Imam, politician § ‘Sacred’ texts § Ideological leaders • Rarely amenable to new or conflicting evidence. This crucial Strong leaders distinction can change oftenauthoritarian gets lost in discussions systems; c. f. of. Pope how we Francis. “know” something.

Foundations of Research Authority-based belief… What are some advantages of authority – based belief? n n n Provides a stable core of principles; knowledge & beliefs… People with extensive experience & knowledge have important insights. Can move a field beyond the data; visionaries, revolutionaries… Shutterstock. com 16

Foundations of Research Authority-based belief… 17 Disadvantages? n Can be insensitive to proof or evidence n Can be misused for financial / political ends… n Highly susceptible to political or commercial bias § Can require evidence / science be corrupted, distorted or ignored. § Can ignore or circumvent normal scientific procedures (e. g. , Political requirements for Intelligent Design content in biology instruction). Click image for Sanford Medicine collection of Doctor smoking ads

E X A M P L E Foundations of Research 18 Authority-based belief Psychoanalysis is based on the writings of key authorities rather than actual psychological evidence, but contributed substantially to psychology. Christian “conversion therapies” continue to try and turn gay men straight, despite evidence that they are destructive. Public Domain; Loyalbooks. com. Image: http: //www. firstrunfeatures. com/ Click to rent ($2. 99) at i. Tunes.

Foundations of Research 2: Intuition, emotion, superstition Shutterstock. com When / how do we rely on intuition? What do you just “know” intuitively? 19

Foundations of Research n n Intuition, emotion, superstition… Advantages? n Can provide emotional or personal insight n Origin of novel hypotheses or theories n Can move a field beyond the data Disadvantages? n n Magical thinking: often explicitly non-empirical Emotion (e. g. , fear) can outweigh rationality or evidence 20

Foundations of Research 21 Intuition E X A M P L E Intuition can be invaluable to science. Werner Heisenberg, a key developer of quantum theory, wrote that his musical training helped him appreciate scientific theory. “New age” therapies and products flourish because they satisfy our emotional wishes, not necessarily by doing anything… Posted in myconfinedspace. com, September 25 th, 2008 by Pagan. Paul Shutterstock. com

Foundations of Research 3. Empiricism: Directly observing the natural world Shutterstock. com What empirical knowledge do you rely on? Think of some “facts” you know… 22

Foundations of Research n 23 Empiricism or simple exposure Advantages? n Grounds knowledge in “real world”. n Confirm intuition by observation n Makes knowledge public (e. g. , Copernican revolution) Shutterstock. com

Foundations of Research Making science public 24 ü Nicolaus Copernicus, 1473 – 1543, Renaissance mathematician and astronomer. First published a heliocentric rather than geocentric model of the universe. ü Derived his model from a combination of logic and empirical observations of the sky. Click for Bio: live. Science. com ü Galileo Galilei, 1564 - 1642, Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher. Invented the telescope and used it to confirm Copernicus’ heliocentric model. ü Key participant in Renaissance Scientific Revolution; established the central role of unbiased observation as the basis for theory. ü Refuted the role of religious dogma in establishing ‘truth’. Was convicted of heresy, sentenced to lifetime house arrest, had his book burned. Click bio. : Max Planck Institute. ü Seen as the “Father of Modern Science” for establishing the importance of empirical observation over dogma in several branches of science.

Foundations of Research n n Empiricism or simple exposure 25 Advantages? n Grounds knowledge in “real world”. n Confirm intuition by observation n Makes knowledge public Disadvantages / limitations? 1. Simple illusions / misperceptions / measurement error 2. Confirmatory bias 3. Oversensitive to emotional / perceptual salience 4. Spurious correlations 5. Anti-science use of naïve empiricism

Foundations of Research Empirical data often cannot counter ideology E X A M P L E Stereotypes of social groups – African-Americans, Asians, gays – have been overturned by direct experience and empirical data. Although the jury is still out on the cops & doughnuts stereotype… Shutterstock. com 26

Foundations of Research Empirical data often cannot counter ideology E X A M P L E Stereotypes of social groups – African-Americans, Asians, gays – have been overturned by direct experience and empirical data. It has taken years for abstinence-only sex education to recede, despite clear empirical evidence that it does not work. Click for article from SFGate. com 27

Foundations of Research n Limitations to empiricism 28 Why is it difficult for us to use empirical evidence in our decision making? 1. Illusions 2. Confirmatory bias Our perceptions of the world can be simply mistaken 3. Emotional salience 4. Spurious correlations 5. Naïve empiricism

Foundations of Research Limits of empiricism: 1. Simple illusions Akiyoshi KITAOKA, Psychology, Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto, Japan http: //www. ritsumei. ac. jp/~akitaoka/index-e. html 29

Foundations of Research 30 How many Fs do you see in this passage? FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY COMBINED WITH THE EXPERIENCE OF YEARS. A=2 B=3 C=4 D=5 E=6

Foundations of Research n Limitations to empiricism: Confirmatory Bias 31 Why is it difficult for us to use empirical evidence in our decision making? 1. Illusions 2. Confirmatory bias Our perceptions are often biased by 3. Emotional salience what we expect to see… 4. Spurious correlations 5. Naïve empiricism

Foundations of Research Limits of empiricism: 2. Confirmatory bias It can seem as though Cops are particularly fond of doughnuts. Is that really what we see? How much are our perceptions or memories due to what we expect to see? Shutterstock. com 32

Foundations of Research Limits of empiricism: 2. Confirmatory bias Cops and doughnuts Cop? Doughnut? Yes Shutterstock. com 33 This is a subjective cooccurrence matrix. It illustrates what we think we see… No Yes No = How memorable are each of these combinations?

Foundations of Research Limits of empiricism: 2. Confirmatory bias Cops and doughnuts Cop? Doughnut? Yes This cell is visually & Seeing someone who is not Seeing a non-cop who is Seeing a cop not eating a a cop, and not eating a doughnut at least doughnut – particularly if cognitively salient. doughnut, tells us nothing, tells us that people other we see this all the time – We recall this best… of course. than cops eat doughnuts. should tell us a lot. …and, since we ignore all We do not register this as Maybe cops and doughnuts the other cells, makes us information at all. are not really a thing… think we have empirical …but we typically will not evidence for the cops & register this as information. doughnuts hypothesis. 34 No Yes No = How memorable are each of these combinations

Foundations of Research Limits of empiricism: 35 2. Confirmatory bias Cops and doughnuts Cop? Yes No Shutterstock. com Doughnut? This is how stereotypes – e. g. , Yes of different ethic, religious or other groups – are maintained. We ‘see’ (or remember) what we expect to see… We are over –sensitive to No confirmatory information. = How memorable are each of these combinations

Foundations of Research n Limitations to empiricism; Emotional Salience 36 Why is it difficult for us to use empirical evidence in our decision making? 1. Illusions 2. Confirmatory bias 3. Emotional salience Our memories of what we see can 4. Spurious correlations be biased by emotions or simple 5. Naïve empiricism salience (we remember dramatic events better…)

Foundations of Research n n Limits of empiricism: 3. Emotional Salience 37 Observation is never neutral or “objective” We pay attention to & remember stimuli that are: üPerceptually salient üAddress our emotional needs Shutterstock. com Click for anytimes. com article on misinterpreting coincidence: What are the odds of that? Coincidence in the Age of Conspiracy. ü Salience effects: Which kills more women, breast cancer or cardiovascular disease? ü Fear arousal: Is the deficit a genuinely serious economic issue? ü Conspiracy theories: Could Kennedy have been killed by a single person? (law of effect) ü Fear based attitude change: Democracy is threatened by phony voters we need to make voting much more difficult…

Foundations of Research n Limitations to empiricism; Spurious correlations 38 Why is it difficult for us to use empirical evidence in our decision making? 1. Illusions We can easily think one event caused the other just because they 2. Confirmatory bias co-occur [see: Magical Thought] 3. Emotional salience 4. Spurious correlations 5. Naïve empiricism

Foundations of Research 4. Spurious (naïve empirical) correlations: 39 The Japanese eat very little fat and suffer fewer heart attacks than the British or Americans. The French eat a lot of fat and also suffer fewer heart attacks than the British or Americans. The Japanese drink very little red wine and suffer fewer heart attacks than the British or Americans. The Italians drink lots of red wine and suffer fewer heart attacks than the British or Americans. Conclusion: Eat & drink what you like. It's speaking English that kills you.

Foundations of Research n n Spurious correlations… 40 I dreamed about meeting someone last night. This afternoon I met this really nice guy / gal on the elevator. A = Marry him / her now; your dream tells you this is the one! B = I don’t believe in coincidences; I should at least go out with him / her C = Thinking about that dream made me more open to meeting someone… D = Please. Dreams have nothing to do with anything.

Foundations of Research n Spurious correlations… 41 I dreamed about meeting someone last night. This afternoon I met this really nice guy / gal on This item is clearly silly to the elevator. most of us (I hope…). n A = Marry him / her now; your dream tells you this is the one! B = I don’t believe in coincidences; I should at least go out with him / her C = Thinking about that dream made me more open to meeting someone… D = Please. Dreams have nothing to do with anything.

Foundations of Research Spurious correlations… 42 Here is a fallacy that often undermines rational thought: n I dreamed about meeting someone last night. § There actually are many coincidences (spurious correlations) n§ This afternoon I met this really nice guy / gal on Wishful thinking may lead us to falsely interpret them as cause and effect. the elevator. A = Marry him / her now; your dream tells you this is the one! B = I don’t believe in coincidences; I should at least go out with him / her C = Thinking about that dream made me more open to meeting someone… D = Please. Dreams have nothing to do with anything.

Foundations of Research n Spurious correlations… I dreamed about meeting someone last night. 43 Even if we are rational about our dreams, our experience of nthem may actually affect our behavior… This afternoon I met this really nice guy / gal on § the elevator. Whether the dream is “true” or not. A = Marry him / her now; your dream tells you this is the one! B = I don’t believe in coincidences; I should at least go out with him / her C = Thinking about that dream made me more open to meeting someone… D = Please. Dreams have nothing to do with anything.

Foundations of Research Spurious correlations… 44 The rational perspective… n §I dreamed about meeting someone last night. No coherent theory can explain how dreams might predict the future… n This afternoon I met this really nice guy / gal on § There is zero evidence to that effect. the elevator. …but ‘C’ shows us how dreams may actually have something to do with your behavior. A = Marry him / her now; your dream tells you this is the one! B = I don’t believe in coincidences; I should at least go out with him / her C = Thinking about that dream made me more open to meeting someone… D = Please. Dreams have nothing to do with anything.

Foundations of Research n Limitations to empiricism 45 Why is it difficult for us to use empirical evidence in our decision making? 1. Illusions 2. Confirmatory bias “Mindless” or Naïve Empiricism can reflect anti-scientific bias 3. Emotional salience I won’t believe it unless I can directly see it myself… 4. Spurious correlations 5. Naïve empiricism

Foundations of Research Limits to empiricism: 5. Anti-science & naïve empiricism ü The sun obviously goes around the earth; humans must be the center of the universe. ü We had a record cold winter; global warming must be a myth. Shutterstock ü The “big bang” makes no sense; we clearly are not moving in space. ü We cannot “see” things evolving ü The world just looks “designed” Shutterstock. Evolution must be false 46

Foundations of Research 5. Anti-science & naïve empiricism Naïve Empiricism n Science asks “how? ”, not simply “what? ” § Testing hypotheses and developing theories is more important than raw data § Empirical observations must be put into a larger, theoretical context § We cannot directly “see” even the most basic of scientific principles or processes (e. g. , gravity…). 47

Foundations of Research Rationalism: theory building 48 What are some things you know rationally? What is a theory of yours that “just makes sense”? Shutterstock …and how do you know it is correct?

Foundations of Research n Advantages / purpose? n n Rationalism Develop coherent principles or theories. Articulate hypothetical constructs* that underlie behavior. Make our conclusions correspond to other knowledge Disadvantages? n n Do we show bias in the data we use to support theory? Are our theories influenced by ideological bias or authority-based belief systems? *We will talk a lot about these later… 49

Foundations of Research 50 Rationalism Science has advanced via clear and strong theories, that. . E X A M P L E n n n Organize our understanding of a field Guide us toward new hypotheses and research questions Summarize empirical data Shutterstock à The theory of evolution à Social – cognitive theories in psychology à Basic learning theory Shutterstock Click for an overview of Learning Theory from Simply. Psychology

Foundations of Research Theory; the vanishing mental illness 51 Until 1974 homosexuality was considered a form of mental illness. Unfortunately, theory can be prey to non. Clinic studies: psychiatrists reported that homosexual therapy scientific political or cultural trends… patients had psychological problems E X A M P L E Ø Ø Since their sample consisted only of people in therapy, of course all their homosexual patients had problems… Ø Ø … all their heterosexual patients also had problems! A strong ideological bias toward viewing homosexuality as pathological blinded them to how wildly biased this “empirical evidence” was. 70’s / 80’s: Independent Population studies and changing attitudes challenged this ideology. The rejection of homosexuality as mental illness was decided by a vote; there were no empirical criteria Ø A form of politics still affected this important issue.

Foundations of Research Bottom line: Ways of knowing and science 52 n Authority / authoritarianism à Provides stable, core principles or beliefs à Limits empirical evidence or alternative views n Intuition / subjective “hunch” à Important source of novel hypotheses / theories / scientific approaches à Emotion-based “wishful thinking” or “magical thought” can make us irrational or ignore / distort empirical facts. n Empiricism à Grounds knowledge in “real” world, provides important hypothesis-testing perspective à Our perceptions are subject to cognitive / emotional biases. n Rationalism / theory à Central purpose of science: coherent explanation of “why” or “how” nature works. à Social or political pressure can limit hypothesis testing or lessen respect for empirical evidence.

Foundations of Research How do we “Know” something? 53 Science: Integration of. . Rationalism n Theory n Hypothesis Developing theories – explanations of how or why behavior works – is a core purpose of research. Empiricism n Objective observation n Control n Operational definitions n Replication Empirical data helps us: ü describe the world ü test hypotheses & develop theory.

SUMMARY Foundations of Research Sources of knowledge Ø Authority Stable beliefs. Biased / limiting? Ø Intuition Important source of ideas. Rational? Ø Empiricism Points us toward the Natural World. Ø Rationalism We strive to explain nature; why / how. 54 ü Multiple cognitive & emotional biases impede empiricism: Ø Illusions Ø Confirmatory bias Ø Emotional salience Ø Spurious correlations Ø Naïve empiricism

Foundations of Research 55 Please go on to next module: What does Science “Do”? Cranach, Tree of Knowledge [of Good and Evil] (1472)