Forms of Imperial Control Forms of Imperialism Direct

Forms of Imperial Control

Forms of Imperialism • Direct military intervention total control of the country • Protectorate - own govt. but “guided” by mother country • Sphere of influence - imperialist hold exclusive economic interests • But overall aim was to gain the most at the least expense

Forms of Colonial Control Forms of Imperialism Characteristics African Example Colony Country governed internally by a foreign power Somaliland by France Protectorate Country with its own Niger River Delta by internal government Britain but under the control of an outside power Sphere of Influence Area in which an outside power claims exclusive investment or trading privileges Liberia by the United States

New Patterns of Government Direct Rule • European Governments controls everything • European officials make decisions and native leaders Indirect enforce them Rule

Colonization under Direct Rule • Direct rule- Under direct rule, colonies featured administrative districts headed by European personnel who assumed responsibility for tax collection, labor and military recruitment, and the maintenance of law and order. • Administrative boundaries intentionally cut across existing African political and ethnic boundaries in order to divide and weaken potentially powerful indigenous (native) groups.

Difficulties Under Direct Rule • Constant shortage of European personnel – Ex. In French West Africa some thirty-six hundred Europeans tried to rule over an African population of more than nine million. • The combination of long distances and slow transport limited effective communication between regional authorities and officials in remote areas. • An inability to speak local languages and a limited understanding of local customs among European officials further undermined their effective administration.

Colonization under Indirect Rule • A British colonial administrator Frederick D. Lugard was the driving force behind the doctrine of indirect rule, which the British employed in many of its African colonies. • Lugard wrote The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa. • In this he stressed the moral and financial advantages of exercising control over subject populations through indigenous (native) institutions.

Frederick D. Lugard

Indirect Control • Lugard thought that by using tribal and customary laws Europeans could establish a strong foundation for colonial rule. • Forms of indirect rule worked in regions where Africans had already established strong and highly organized states • Often this plan was not effective, especially in the regions that were not well organized under the control of its colonial leaders.

Difficulties Under Indirect Rule • Many colonial leaders were confused by the complexity of tribal laws and boundaries and imposed their own idea of what they thought was tribal boundaries and tribal laws. • This was done with little regard to the differences between tribes and these tribes were split up into what Europeans thought was acceptable boundaries. • These colonial boundaries divided ethnic groups or grouped traditional enemies. • Some groups were even given limited access to water in their newly drawn up lines of tribal territories.

Results of Indirect Rule • As a result of colonial rule with little regard to African’s tribal boundaries and practices many African nations today are fighting tribal wars • Ex. (Rwandan genocide) and still having disputes over land for reasons such as ethnic dominance and control over natural resources.

Management Methods Indirect Control Direct Control Characteristics -Local officials were used -Limited self-rule -Goal to develop future leaders -Govt’s based on European styles, but may have local rulers Characteristics -Foreign officials brought into rule - No self-rule -Goal assimilation---adopt the White Way -Govt’s institutions based only on European styles Examples -British colonies such as Nigeria, India, Burma -U. S. colonies on Pacific Examples -French colonies such as Somaliland, Vietnam -German colonies such as

Forms of Imperialism Examples of Differences Between French and British • The French used their colonial officials to govern, spread French culture, and make territories overseas extensions of France • The British focused strictly on administration and were less apt to convert colonial peoples to British ways • The British often allowed local rulers to govern territories as their representatives

Berlin Conference

The Division of Africa • Diamonds (1867) and gold (1886) were discovered in South Africa. • Berlin Conference (1884 -85): • 14 European nations agreed to lay down rules for the division of Africa. • No African ruler was invited to this conference. • Demand of Raw Materials: Africa was rich in mineral resources like copper and tin in the Congo and gold and diamonds in South Africa. • Cash crop plantations for peanuts, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber were also developed.

Berlin Conference 1884 § GOALS: to promote § Ensure Free trade three c’s § Ensure free § Commerce navigation on Niger § Christianity River § civilization § Agree to rules to divide up Africa

Also, there was the question of how to divvy up Africa in an orderly manner… • Of course, no one asked the native Africans. • Over time, “warring” tribes would be placed together • Straight lines in Africa and the Middle East clearly indicate “imperial” meddling.

The Berlin Conference laid down certain rules-- • A European power with holdings on the coast had prior rights • Occupation must include administrators or troops • Each power must give notice to the others of what territories it considered its own • THE REAL SCRAMBLE BEGAN!

African Colonization • 1884 Berlin Conference: European powers meet and agree on how to divide Africa into colonies. – Only Liberia and Ethiopia remain independent.

Berlin Conference of 1884 -1885 Another point of view?

– England, France, and Germany take the most territory. – France takes most of the Sahel.

British Colonies in Africa

Why would the British have the largest empire? Industrial demands, need for navy

British imperialism Cartoon Pro-England or Anti-England?

Suez Canal • 1869, Suez Canal influenced Britain’s interest in Egypt • Canal linked Mediterranean with Red Sea, shortened trip from Europe to Indian Ocean; no need to sail around southern tip of Africa • 1882, Egyptian government appeared unstable; British occupied Egypt to protect British interests in Suez Canal; later established partial control as protectorate to ensure British access to canal Division in Africa • European nations competed aggressively for other territories • 1884– 1885, European leaders met in Berlin to divide African territory • Tried to prevent conflict between European nations No Regard for Tradition • Berlin Conference—for European nation to claim new African territory, it had to prove it could control territory • No attention paid to ethnic boundaries in dividing Africa

BRITISH IN NORTH AFRICA • Egypt – in name ruled by Ottoman Turks, but largely independent • European capital investments – Suez Canal opened in 1869 • Built by the Egyptians and French • Taken over by the British (1875) – British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli » Bought shares in Suez Canal Company from Egypt • Egypt was nearly bankrupt from the expense of building the Suez Canal » British government became largest shareholder

EUROPEANS IN EGYPT • 1870 s – with the Egyptian government bankrupt, the British and French took over financial control of the country – Egyptian monarchs (technically Ottoman viceroys) ruled as puppet leaders • 1882 – Egyptian nationalist rebellion – France withdrew its troops – Great Britain left in control of Egypt • Lord Cromer introduced reforms – De facto British protectorate • Made official in 1914 • Independence came in 1922

Suez Canal

BRITISH COLONIES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA • Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) – Named for Cecil Rhodes – North of Union of South Africa • Bechuanaland (now Botswana) – 1885 – became a British protectorate • Kenya – 1888 – became a British protectorate

BRITISH IN NORTHERN AFRICA • Sudan – – Area south of Egypt Under Anglo-Egyptian control Cotton needed for British textile mills Entente Cordiale (1904) • Great Britain controlled Sudan • France controlled Morocco • Cape-to-Cairo Railroad – Idea of Cecil Rhodes – Would secure Great Britain’s dominance in Africa – Never completed – sections missing through modern Sudan and Uganda

Cape-to-Cairo Railway: Crossing over Victoria Falls

South Africa • Cecil Rhodes Kimberley • Dr Jameson Raid, unsuccessful attempt to take over Boer regions. • Boer War (1899 -1902) British eventually won a war of attrition

Soon after that, the British got involved in the Boer War—The Germans supported the Boers, while the British were ultimately victorious.

South Africa • By 1880 European nations only controlled 10% of Africa • The British took the Dutch settlement of Cape Town after the Napoleonic Wars • Boers - Dutch descendents moved northward to avoid the British. Vortrekkers - The Great Trek created two independent states: Orange Free State and Transvaal • After 1853 the Boers proclaimed political independence and fought the British • By 1880 British and Boer settlers controlled much of South Africa

Second Boer War • The Second Boer War was In 1899, the Boers end up taking up arms against the British. • This is the first “total war”. The Boers use commando raids and guerilla tactics against the British. • The British burn Boer farms and imprison women and children in concentration camps. • The British finally won this war. • In 1910 the Boer Republic joins the Union of South Africa.

Dead British soldiers lying in trenches after the Battle of Spion Kop, near Ladysmith, Natal

French and German Colonies in Africa

French and Germans French West Africa • West Africa, leader of Malinke peoples, Samory Touré, formed army to fight against French rule; fought for 15 years; proclaimed self king of Guinea • 1898, French defeated Touré, ended resistance to French rule in West Africa German East Africa • Africans called on gods, ancestors for spiritual guidance in resistance • 1905, several African peoples united to rebel against Germans’ order to grow cotton for export to Germany Rebellion Put Down • To combat Germans, spiritual leader encouraged followers to sprinkle magic water over bodies to protect selves from German bullets; did not work • Rebellion quickly put down; Germans killed tens of thousands of Africans

FRENCH IN AFRICA • Algeria – 1830 – invasion – 1831 – annexation • Tunis – 1881 – controlled by France • Led Italy to join the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany • Morocco – 1881 – large part under French control – 1905 and 1911 – nearly sparked a European war between France and Germany • 1906 – Algeciras Conference – Germany recognized French rights in Morocco • 1911 – Agadir Crisis – Germany recognized French protectorate over Morocco in exchange for part of France’s territory in the Congo

FRENCH IN AFRICA • Madagascar – 1896 – controlled by France • Somaliland – 1880 s – partly under French control • West Africa – Late 1800 s – largely under French control • Sudan – 1898 – met Britain’s area of control and nearly went to war – Entente Cordiale settled British-French disputes in Africa

FRENCH IN AFRICA • By World War I – 1914 – France controlled 3, 250, 000 square miles in Africa • 14 times the area of France – France ruled 30, 000 Africans • 75% of the population of France

GERMANS IN AFRICA • Togoland (now Togo and Ghana) • Cameroons (now Cameroon and Nigeria) • Southwest Africa (now Namibia) • East Africa (now Burundi, Rwanda, and Tanzania)

Belgian Colonies in Africa

The Congo "I do not want to risk. . . losing a fine chance to secure for ourselves a slice of this magnificent African cake. ”--Leopold II Belgian Congo

BELGIANS IN AFRICA • 1908 – Belgium gained control of Congo (Congo Free State) from King Leopold II – Leopold was infamous for the cruelty of his rule in the Congo • Congo Free State (today’s Democratic Republic of Congo) – 80 times the size of Belgium – Source of uranium

KING LEOPOLD II OF BELGIUM (1835 -1909) • Took over land in central Africa • Berlin Conference (1885) – Leopold’s control over Congo Free State recognized by major powers • Belgian Congo (1908) – Leopold criticized for the cruelty of his rule in the Congo – Leopold forced to sell Congo Free State to Belgian government – Renamed Belgian Congo • Created European race for African colonies – “Scramble for Africa” – Diamonds, foodstuffs, gold, ivory, rubber

The Congo Free State: Leopold’s False Promises • European countries recognized Leopold’s claim to the territory in 1885 because of: – Stanley’s treaties for Leopold – Leopold’s assurances that he would end slavery – Leopold’s promise that the Congo would remain a free trade area. n The colony “belonged” to Leopold personally.

Leopold waged a skillful public relations campaign to promote his “Congo Free State” as an effort to stop the Arabs from running a slave trade in Africa. This, of course, was a ruse. Slave raids such as this one carried out by the kingdom of Dahomey in return for European muskets and money provided Leopold II with his “humanitarian” excuse for going into the Congo.

The Congo Free State : “The Profit Imperative” • Leopold drove slave traders out and portrayed it as humanitarian act. • Reality: he did it to gain control of region. • Leopold paid his ‘agents’ in the Congo a percentage of profits, encouraging them to make the trade more and more profitable. • Also authorized the use of as much force as was deemed necessary.

The Congo Sparks Interest • Stanley set out to explore Africa and trace the Congo. • King Leopold II of Belgium commissioned Stanley to help him obtain land in the Congo. • Stanley signed treaties with local chiefs who gave Leopold II control over these lands.

Role of Stanley in Congo • Leopold sent the famous explorer of Africa, Henry Morton Stanley, to negotiate treaties with the natives. • Native chiefs were offered trinkets or cloth if they would place an X on a document in foreign tongue.

Role of Stanley in Congo • Henry Stanley was hired to find Dr. Livingstone and he became famous with his saying, “Dr. Livingstone, I presume? ” • This new fame encouraged King Leopold of Belgium to hire Stanley • Stanley surveyed the basin of the Upper Congo River and traced the course of the Congo River • To control land in the Congo, Leopold founded the International Association of the Congo

Role of Stanley in Congo • Stanley began to sign treaties with over 450 native chiefs from the Congo • As a result, Leopold gained rule of these lands given up by the chiefs • In 1885, after the Berlin Conference, Leopold was given personal rule over the newly declared Congo Free State • Leopold had what he wanted because other European powers recognized his hold over Congo

Chiefs of Ngombi & Mafela, in return for "one piece of cloth per month to each of the undersigned chiefs, besides present of cloth in hand, " they promised to "freely of their own accord, for themselves and theirs and successors for ever. . . give up to the said Association the sovereignty and all sovereign and governing rights to all their territories. . . and to assist by labour or otherwise, any works, improvements or expeditions which the said Association shall cause at any time to be carried out in any part of these territories. . All roads and waterways running through this country, the right of collecting tolls on the same, and all game, fishing, mining and forest rights, are to be the absolute property of the said Association. ” --Treaty handing over land to Leopold II

Harvesting Rubber

The Congo Free State : “The Profit Imperative” • Colony not profitable in first few years. • Soon the idea of free trade was abandoned; natives could only trade with Leopold’s representatives, with 50% of profits going to Leopold himself. • Profit required cheap labor (gathering rubber is very labor intensive).

• Belgian soldiers enforcing rubber sap quotas

Leopold’s Abuse of the Congo • Agents ‘encouraged’ young men to work by holding their wives and children captive until each man’s quota was met. • Many who resisted were killed on the spot. • Others were beaten with whips made from dried hippo hide with sharp edges. – 20 lashes resulted in unconsciousness – 100 lashes resulted in death.

Women kept hostage to force their husbands to go and gather rubber. Rubber was harvested by climbing the rubber tree, tapping into it and letting the sap run all over the slave’s body, where it would congeal. Later he would peel the rubber off his body, taking any body hair with it. Rubber harvesters were given impossible quotas to fill each month. In addition to enduring the hardships of gathering rubber in the jungle, many of them were killed by wild animals. Belgian Congo

"The station chief selects the victims. . Trembling, haggard, they lie face down on the ground. . . two of their companions, sometimes four, seize them by the feet and hands, and remove their cotton drawers. . Each time that the torturer lifts up the chicotte, a reddish stripe appears on the skin of the pitiful victims, who, however firmly held, gasp in frightful contortions. . At the first blows the unhappy victims let out horrible cries which soon become faint groans. . In a refinement of evil, some officers, and I've witnessed this, demand that when the sufferer gets up, panting, he must graciously give the military salute. ” -- Stanislas Lefranc, Belgian prosecutor The chicotte, a particularly vicious type of whip made from rhinoceros hide. Belgian Congo

Punishing “Lazy” Workers

Two victims (l. ) who lost their hands, one because his wrists were tied too tightly, the other because company militia cut it off to claim him as killed and get a reward. Below, a Belgian Congo father looks at the severed hand foot of his daughter

Mutilated People in the Congo Free State

The men in this photo are holding human hands. sun. menloschool. org

5 -8 Million Victims! (50% of Popul. ) It is blood-curdling to see them (the soldiers) returning with the hands of the slain, and to find the hands of young children amongst the bigger ones evidencing their bravery. . . The rubber from this district has cost hundreds of lives, and the scenes I have witnessed, while unable to help the oppressed, have been almost enough to make me wish I were dead. . . This rubber traffic is steeped in blood, and if the natives were to rise and sweep every white person on the Upper Congo into eternity, there would still be left a fearful balance to their credit. -- Belgian Official

Leopold’s Abuse of the Congo • Revolt broke out. Leopold sent troops into villages to exterminate the young men. • To make sure bullets weren’t wasted, soldiers were expected to return with the severed right hands of those they killed. • Soldiers who couldn’t meet quotas or spent bullets hunting would cut hands off of living women and children. Between 1895 -1908 an estimated 8 -10 million people died due to murder, mistreatment and starvation.

The “Hand” Tax § Hands cut off as proof of killing or punishment: received payment for hands and “proved” that supervisors were not “wasting” bullets on game hunting

Leopold’s men then proceeded to rape the land of its riches, especially ivory and rubber, ruthlessly using forced labor to get the job done. "It was most interesting, lying in the bush, watching the natives quietly at their day's work. Some women. . . were making banana flour by pounding up dried bananas. Men we could see building huts and engaged in other work, boys & girls running about, singing. . I opened the game by shooting one chap through the chest. He fell like a stone. . Immediately a volley was poured into the village. ” "Six shots & four deaths were sufficient to quiet the mocking. ”--Henry Stanley

The village of Baringa before and after it was burned & converted into a rubber plantation, it being easier to clear a village than a deeply rooted jungle Belgian Congo

Belgium’s Stranglehold on the Congo

Leopold’s Conscience? ?

Negative press about what the Belgians were doing in the Congo The Belgian King Leopold II says to the USA " I'll give you enough rubber to make you an elastic conscience" http: //www. flickr. com/photos/41766098@N 03/3965951238/

Marlow’s & Conrad’s 1889 -90 journey into “Heart of Darkness” Joseph Conrad (1857 -1914)

The First Modern Genocide? From 1885 -1908 the Congolese population declines by one-half to 10 million due to 1) murder 2) starvation/exhaustion 3) disease 4) low birth rate An estimated 10 million people died during this time

Effects of Imperialism on Congolese Continued • They were forced to collect sap from rubber plants by European Companies that King Leopold II issued. • A near 10 million Congolese died from the brutality of Leopold’s rule. • Humanitarians all around the world wanted big changes because of the horrible acts of Leopold. • The Belgium Government took control in 1908, away from the vicious Leopold. • There was slavery throughout Africa and they were beaten and forced to work but that would soon be over because they were going to gain independence from Belgium soon.

Effect on the Congo: The Human Rights Movement • Public pressure eventually forced Leopold to sell the Congo Free State to the Belgian government. It became The Belgian Congo in 1908 • The Belgian Government ended the worst of the atrocities, but still controlled the fate of the African natives “For their own good. ” • The African natives were never consulted about their future

Imperial Power Removed In Congo • In 1908 the Congo was surrendered by King Leopold II to Belgium. • It was renamed the Belgium Congo. • Working conditions were harsh but the Belgium rule improved them significantly. • People began to demand self rule. • The Belgium government agreed to give their political power to the people because they were so confident that they would later regain control. • The Belgium Government was wrong, on June 30, 1960, Congo gained their independence. • Joseph Kasavubu and Patrick Lumumba were the new president and prime minister of the Belgium Congo.

Italian Colonies in Africa

ITALIANS IN AFRICA • 1882 -1896 – Eritrea (along the Red Sea) – Somaliland (along the Indian Ocean, part of today’s Somalia) • 1896 – Defeated in attempt to conquer Abyssinia (Ethiopia) • 1912 – Won Tripoli from Ottoman Turks

Portuguese Colonies in Africa

PORTUGUESE IN AFRICA • Under “old imperialism” Portugal gained African territory and led the early trans-Atlantic African slave trade • Angola • Mozambique Portuguese territory in Africa, 1810

Spanish Colonies in Africa

SPANISH IN AFRICA • Spain had very few possessions in Africa • Tip of Morocco • Rio de Oro • Rio Muni

Modern boundaries, drawn by Europeans

Examples of African Resistance to Imperialism

Primary Source… • Nor is violent physical opposition to abuse and injustice henceforth possible for the African in any part of Africa. His chances of effective resistance have been steadily dwindling with the increasing perfectibility in the killing power of modern armament. Thus the African is really helpless against the material gods of the white man, as embodied in the trinity of imperialism, capitalistic exploitation and militarism. – Edward Morel, “The Black Man’s Burden” • According to this statement, do you think the Africans could overcome the challenges of Imperialism?

African Resistance • Many Africans attempted to resist European imperialism • It was difficult for Africans to resist because – Europeans had superior weapons – More organized armies – Unlimited money Aim: What challenges did Africans face in an attempt to resist European imperialism? Do Now: Matching

African Resistance Africans did not passively accept European claims to rule over them. As European troops advanced on African territory, they met stiff resistance. The Zulu Ethiopia • Zulu people resisted colonialization more than 50 years • Only nation to retain independence by matching European firepower • Zulu leader Shaka built strong kingdom by subduing several neighboring peoples • 1889, emperor Menelik II modernized nation, army • 1879, British invaded Zulu territory, annexed kingdom as colony • 1895, Italian forces invaded over treaty dispute • Menelik’s forces defeated Italians Even without modern weapons, other Africans still fiercely resisted European powers.

Ethiopia: Successful Resistance • Only African nation that was successful in resisting the Europeans • Menelik II, leader, played the Italians, French and British against each other. – He built a large arsnal of weapons – Learned that treaties were not always correct • Defeated the Italians in the Battle of Adowa Aim: What challenges did Africans face in an attempt to resist European imperialism? Do Now: Matching

Menelik II Aim: What challenges did Africans face in an attempt to resist European imperialism? Do Now: Matching

Shaka Zulu (1785 – 1828)

Three Groups Clash over South Africa • Zulus Fight the British – Around 1816, Shaka, used highly disciplined warriors and good military organization to create a large centralized Zulu state.

Shaka’s Military Innovations • Short spear was the principal weapon requiring close combat. Large shield was introduced. • Warriors went bare foot so that the soles of the feet would be toughened. • Constant drilling to keep warriors physically fit. • Boys six and over were apprentice warriors who carried rations. They were highly organized. • Regiments were given various tasks based on the age range of the men making up the regiment. • “Buffalo horn formation” is credited to Shaka.

Boers Clash With the Xhosa Tribes Boer Farmer

Who Were The Boers? – The first Europeans to settle South Africa were the Dutch. They later became known as the Boers (also called Afrikaners). – British control of South Africa caused a clash between the Boers and British. – Boers move north on the Great Trek, but clash with Zulus.

The Great Trek, 1836 -38 Afrikaners

Anglo-Zulu War – Shaka’s successors could not keep power against superior British arms. – In 1879 the Anglo. Zulu War broke out.

vs. Army of the United Kingdom rifle technology Army of the Zulu Kingdom shield and spear close combat

Anglo-Zulu War • On January 22, 1879, Zulu King Cetshwayo (pictured right) attacked the British at the Battle of Isandlwana with an army of 20, 000 Zulus against 850 British soldiers and 450 Africans in British service. • Only 50 enlisted British soldiers and 5 officers escaped.

Battle of Isandlwana

Rorke’s Drift • The Battle of Rorke’s Drift mission station occurred the same day and the next (22 -23 Jan 1879), immediately following the British defeat at Isandlwana. • However, 139 British soldiers successfully defended their garrison against a force of 5, 000 Zulus. • The 1964 film Zulu is a depiction of this battle.

Artists depiction of the Battle of Rorke’s Drift, 22 -23 January 1879.

Effects of Imperialism

Negative Effects of Imperialism Traditional patterns of life were destroyed Exploited Africa’s natural resources Switched to farming cash crops African villages were no longer self-sufficient Africans became dependant on Europe Positive Effects of Imperialism Built roads, bridges, and railroads Set up new schools Introduced new farming methods

Effects of Imperialism • Positive – Reduced Local Warfare – The introduction of modern of transportation and communication systems, such as telegraphs, railroads and telephones. – Improved Sanitation – Introduction of medicine increased population – Life Span and Literacy Rates Increased • Negative – Loss of land independence – Breakdown of traditional culture – Division of Continent

Effects of Imperialism • Positive For Europe: The imperialists profited from the colonies by digging mines, starting plantations, and building factories and ports • Negative for Africans: • Africans were used as cheap labor and abused in many colonies. • Europeans divided Africa and ignored the tribal, ethnic, and cultural boundaries of the African people. • This has led to tribal conflicts in many African nations that continue to this day.

Effects of Imperialism • Positive/Negative Effects for Africa: • Schools set up by Europeans taught Africans that European ways were best • A western-educated elite had emerged in many European colonies in Africa • These elite condemned imperialism • They founded nationalist groups to push for self-rule • By the end of the 20 th Century Africa’s peoples had won their political independence from European rule