Fig 54 1 Fig 54 2 A distichus

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Fig. 54 -1

Fig. 54 -1

Fig. 54 -2 A. distichus perches on fence posts and other sunny surfaces. A.

Fig. 54 -2 A. distichus perches on fence posts and other sunny surfaces. A. insolitus usually perches on shady branches. A. ricordii A. insolitus A. aliniger A. distichus A. christophei A. cybotes A. etheridgei

Fig. 54 -3 EXPERIMENT Chthamalus Balanus High tide Chthamalus realized niche Balanus realized niche

Fig. 54 -3 EXPERIMENT Chthamalus Balanus High tide Chthamalus realized niche Balanus realized niche Ocean Low tide RESULTS High tide Chthamalus fundamental niche Ocean Low tide

Fig. 54 -3 a EXPERIMENT Chthamalus Balanus High tide Chthamalus realized niche Balanus realized

Fig. 54 -3 a EXPERIMENT Chthamalus Balanus High tide Chthamalus realized niche Balanus realized niche Ocean Low tide

Fig. 54 -3 b RESULTS High tide Chthamalus fundamental niche Ocean Low tide

Fig. 54 -3 b RESULTS High tide Chthamalus fundamental niche Ocean Low tide

Fig. 54 -4 G. fuliginosa G. fortis Percentages of individuals in each size class

Fig. 54 -4 G. fuliginosa G. fortis Percentages of individuals in each size class Beak depth 60 Los Hermanos 40 G. fuliginosa, allopatric 20 0 60 Daphne 40 G. fortis, allopatric 20 0 60 Santa María, San Cristóbal 40 Sympatric populations 20 0 8 10 12 Beak depth (mm) 14 16

Fig. 54 -5 (a) Cryptic coloration Canyon tree frog (b) Aposematic coloration Poison dart

Fig. 54 -5 (a) Cryptic coloration Canyon tree frog (b) Aposematic coloration Poison dart frog (c) Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one. Hawkmoth larva Green parrot snake (d) Müllerian mimicry: Two unpalatable species mimic each other. Cuckoo bee Yellow jacket

Fig. 54 -5 a (a) Cryptic coloration Canyon tree frog

Fig. 54 -5 a (a) Cryptic coloration Canyon tree frog

Fig. 54 -5 b (b) Aposematic coloration Poison dart frog

Fig. 54 -5 b (b) Aposematic coloration Poison dart frog

Fig. 54 -5 c (c) Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one.

Fig. 54 -5 c (c) Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one. Hawkmoth larva Green parrot snake

Fig. 54 -5 d (d) Müllerian mimicry: Two unpalatable species mimic each other. Cuckoo

Fig. 54 -5 d (d) Müllerian mimicry: Two unpalatable species mimic each other. Cuckoo bee Yellow jacket

Fig. 54 -6

Fig. 54 -6

Fig. 54 -7 (a) Acacia tree and ants (genus Pseudomyrmex) (b) Area cleared by

Fig. 54 -7 (a) Acacia tree and ants (genus Pseudomyrmex) (b) Area cleared by ants at the base of an acacia tree

Fig. 54 -7 a (a) Acacia tree and ants (genus Pseudomyrmex)

Fig. 54 -7 a (a) Acacia tree and ants (genus Pseudomyrmex)

Fig. 54 -7 b (b) Area cleared by ants at the base of an

Fig. 54 -7 b (b) Area cleared by ants at the base of an acacia tree

Fig. 54 -8

Fig. 54 -8

Fig. 54 -9 A B C D Community 1 A: 25% B: 25% C:

Fig. 54 -9 A B C D Community 1 A: 25% B: 25% C: 25% D: 25% Community 2 A: 80% B: 5% C: 5% D: 10%

Fig. 54 -10 RESULTS 3. 6 Shannon diversity (H) 3. 4 3. 2 3.

Fig. 54 -10 RESULTS 3. 6 Shannon diversity (H) 3. 4 3. 2 3. 0 2. 8 2. 6 2. 4 2. 2 3 4 5 6 Soil p. H 7 8 9

Fig. 54 -11 Quaternary consumers Carnivore Tertiary consumers Carnivore Secondary consumers Carnivore Primary consumers

Fig. 54 -11 Quaternary consumers Carnivore Tertiary consumers Carnivore Secondary consumers Carnivore Primary consumers Herbivore Zooplankton Primary producers Plant Phytoplankton A terrestrial food chain A marine food chain

Fig. 54 -12 Humans Smaller toothed whales Baleen whales Crab-eater seals Birds Leopard seals

Fig. 54 -12 Humans Smaller toothed whales Baleen whales Crab-eater seals Birds Leopard seals Fishes Sperm whales Elephant seals Squids Carnivorous plankton Euphausids (krill) Copepods Phytoplankton

Fig. 54 -13 Juvenile striped bass Sea nettle Fish larvae Fish eggs Zooplankton

Fig. 54 -13 Juvenile striped bass Sea nettle Fish larvae Fish eggs Zooplankton

Number of trophic links Fig. 54 -14 5 4 3 2 1 0 High

Number of trophic links Fig. 54 -14 5 4 3 2 1 0 High (control): natural rate of litter fall Medium: 1/10 natural rate Productivity Low: 1/100 natural rate

Fig. 54 -15 EXPERIMENT Number of species present RESULTS 20 15 With Pisaster (control)

Fig. 54 -15 EXPERIMENT Number of species present RESULTS 20 15 With Pisaster (control) 10 5 Without Pisaster (experimental) 0 1963 ’ 64 ’ 65 ’ 66 ’ 67 ’ 68 ’ 69 ’ 70 ’ 71 ’ 72 ’ 73 Year

Fig. 54 -15 a EXPERIMENT

Fig. 54 -15 a EXPERIMENT

Fig. 54 -15 b Number of species present RESULTS 20 15 With Pisaster (control)

Fig. 54 -15 b Number of species present RESULTS 20 15 With Pisaster (control) 10 5 0 Without Pisaster (experimental) 1963 ’ 64 ’ 65 ’ 66 ’ 67 ’ 68 ’ 69 ’ 70 ’ 71 ’ 72 ’ 73 Year

Fig. 54 -16 Otter number (% max. count) 100 80 60 40 20 0

Fig. 54 -16 Otter number (% max. count) 100 80 60 40 20 0 (a) Sea otter abundance Grams per 0. 25 m 2 400 300 200 100 Number per 0. 25 m 2 0 (b) Sea urchin biomass 10 8 6 4 2 0 1972 1985 (c) Total kelp density 1989 Year 1993 1997 Food chain

Fig. 54 -17

Fig. 54 -17

Number of plant species Fig. 54 -18 (a) Salt marsh with Juncus (foreground) 8

Number of plant species Fig. 54 -18 (a) Salt marsh with Juncus (foreground) 8 6 4 2 0 (b) With Juncus Without Juncus

Fig. 54 -18 a (a) Salt marsh with Juncus (foreground)

Fig. 54 -18 a (a) Salt marsh with Juncus (foreground)

Number of plant species Fig. 54 -18 b 8 6 4 2 0 (b)

Number of plant species Fig. 54 -18 b 8 6 4 2 0 (b) With Juncus Without Juncus

Fig. 54 -19 Nematode density (number of individuals per kg soil) RESULTS 300 Control

Fig. 54 -19 Nematode density (number of individuals per kg soil) RESULTS 300 Control plots Warmed plots 200 100 0 E. antarcticus S. lindsayae

Fig. 54 -UN 1 Polluted State Restored State Fish Abundant Rare Zooplankton Rare Abundant

Fig. 54 -UN 1 Polluted State Restored State Fish Abundant Rare Zooplankton Rare Abundant Algae Abundant Rare

Fig. 54 -20 Number of taxa 35 30 25 20 15 10 0. 9

Fig. 54 -20 Number of taxa 35 30 25 20 15 10 0. 9 1. 0 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 1. 6 1. 7 1. 8 1. 9 2. 0 Log intensity of disturbance

Fig. 54 -21 (a) Soon after fire (b) One year after fire

Fig. 54 -21 (a) Soon after fire (b) One year after fire

Fig. 54 -21 a (a) Soon after fire

Fig. 54 -21 a (a) Soon after fire

Fig. 54 -21 b (b) One year after fire

Fig. 54 -21 b (b) One year after fire

Fig. 54 -22 -1 1941 1907 1 Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant 0 1860

Fig. 54 -22 -1 1941 1907 1 Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant 0 1860 Glacier Bay Alaska 1760 5 10 15 Kilometers

Fig. 54 -22 -2 1941 1907 2 1 Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant 0

Fig. 54 -22 -2 1941 1907 2 1 Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant 0 1860 Glacier Bay Alaska 1760 5 10 15 Kilometers Dryas stage

Fig. 54 -22 -3 1941 1907 2 1 Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant 0

Fig. 54 -22 -3 1941 1907 2 1 Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant 0 1860 Dryas stage 5 10 15 Kilometers Glacier Bay Alaska 1760 3 Alder stage

Fig. 54 -22 -4 1941 1907 2 1 Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant 0

Fig. 54 -22 -4 1941 1907 2 1 Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant 0 1860 Dryas stage 5 10 15 Kilometers Glacier Bay Alaska 1760 4 Spruce stage 3 Alder stage

Fig. 54 -22 a 1 Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant

Fig. 54 -22 a 1 Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant

Fig. 54 -22 b 2 Dryas stage

Fig. 54 -22 b 2 Dryas stage

Fig. 54 -22 c 3 Alder stage

Fig. 54 -22 c 3 Alder stage

Fig. 54 -22 d 4 Spruce stage

Fig. 54 -22 d 4 Spruce stage

Fig. 54 -23 60 Soil nitrogen (g/m 2) 50 40 30 20 10 0

Fig. 54 -23 60 Soil nitrogen (g/m 2) 50 40 30 20 10 0 Pioneer Dryas Alder Successional stage Spruce

Fig. 54 -24

Fig. 54 -24

Fig. 54 -24 a

Fig. 54 -24 a

Fig. 54 -24 b

Fig. 54 -24 b

Fig. 54 -25 180 160 Tree species richness 140 120 100 80 60 40

Fig. 54 -25 180 160 Tree species richness 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 100 300 500 700 900 Actual evapotranspiration (mm/yr) 1, 100 (a) Trees Vertebrate species richness (log scale) 200 100 50 10 0 500 1, 000 1, 500 Potential evapotranspiration (mm/yr) (b) Vertebrates 2, 000

Fig. 54 -25 a 180 160 Tree species richness 140 120 100 80 60

Fig. 54 -25 a 180 160 Tree species richness 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 100 (a) Trees 300 500 700 900 Actual evapotranspiration (mm/yr) 1, 100

Fig. 54 -25 b Vertebrate species richness (log scale) 200 100 50 10 0

Fig. 54 -25 b Vertebrate species richness (log scale) 200 100 50 10 0 (b) Vertebrates 1, 000 500 1, 500 Potential evapotranspiration (mm/yr) 2, 000

Fig. 54 -26 Number of species 1, 000 10 1 0. 1 1 10

Fig. 54 -26 Number of species 1, 000 10 1 0. 1 1 10 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 Area (hectares)

(a) Immigration and extinction rates Small island Large island Number of species on island

(a) Immigration and extinction rates Small island Large island Number of species on island (b) Effect of island size Im (fa m ig ra sl tio an n d) ri Far island Ex (fa tin r i cti o sl an n d) Rate of immigration or extinction E (s xtin m all ctio isl n an d) Rate of immigration or extinction n io ct tin Ex n tio ra ig Number of species on island Im (s m m ig al ra l i tio sl an n d) n ) tio nd c a tin isl Ex ge r (la n tio ) ra ig land m Im ar is e (n m Equilibrium number n tio d) ra ig lan m is Im ge r (la Im Rate of immigration or extinction Fig. 54 -27 n io ) ct nd n la ti Ex r is a e (n Near island Number of species on island (c) Effect of distance from mainland

ct tin Ex n io at r ig m io n Im Rate of

ct tin Ex n io at r ig m io n Im Rate of immigration or extinction Fig. 54 -27 a Equilibrium number Number of species on island (a) Immigration and extinction rates

m al ig ra l i tio n sl an d) Small island Ex

m al ig ra l i tio n sl an d) Small island Ex tin (s ct m i al l i on sl an d) m n la is (s Im n tio d) ra e rg ig m Im (la Rate of immigration or extinction Fig. 54 -27 b n ) o ti nd c in sla t Ex e i g r (la Large island Number of species on island (b) Effect of island size

(fa m ri ig sl ra an tio d) n Far island (fa tin

(fa m ri ig sl ra an tio d) n Far island (fa tin r i cti sl on an d) Im Ex n tio ra nd) ig m sla Im ar i e (n Rate of immigration or extinction Fig. 54 -27 c n it o d) c it n lan Ex r is a e (n Near island Number of species on island (c) Effect of distance from mainland

Number of plant species (log scale) Fig. 54 -28 400 200 100 50 25

Number of plant species (log scale) Fig. 54 -28 400 200 100 50 25 10 100 103 104 105 Area of island (hectares) (log scale) 106

Fig. 54 -29

Fig. 54 -29

Fig. 54 -30

Fig. 54 -30

Fig. 54 -UN 2

Fig. 54 -UN 2

Fig. 54 -UN 3

Fig. 54 -UN 3