Field Research Neuman and Robson Ch 12 and

Field Research Neuman and Robson Ch. 12 and 13

Introduction to qualitative methodology l l l Data in words rather than numbers Non-positivistic orientation Includes: l l l Field research Qualitative interviewing Historical comparative analysis

Three General Approaches to Research APPROACH POSITIVISM CRITICAL INTERPRETIVE USUAL TYPE OF RESEARCH experiment, survey, cont. anal. historicalcomparative field research, interview PERSPECTIVE technocratic transcendent TYPE OF LOGIC reconstructed logic-in-practice PATH linear non-linear /cyclical

Characteristics of Qualitative Research l l l l Context is critical In depth, detailed Researcher immerses self in data (nonobjective) Researcher integrity Bias recognized Use of grounded theory Can detect process and sequence Data are interpreted rather than analyzed

Elite Studies l l Special type of field research Elites difficult to study, especially with quantitative methods Preferred method is field study But special problems l l Gatekeepers Need for connections/contacts Danger of manipulation Difficulty of establishing trust

Field research l Main types of Field Research are: l l Ethnography Ethnomethodology Phenomenological Study Purposes of field research: l l Data collection Theory construction

Ethnography l l A way of building an understanding the culture and behaviours of a group as a whole. Done in a setting or field site where a group of people share a common culture. In sociology, ethnography usually called a field study Uses: l l l Participant Observation Interviews with Informants Examination of documents and cultural artifacts

Ethnography Video l Getting People to Talk: An Ethnography & Interviewing Primer (Copyright ©

Ethnomethodology l l l The study of commonsense knowledge How do individuals make sense of social situations and act on their knowledge? What are the tacit rules used by members of a culture? Detailed studies of interactions Breaching experiments (Garfinkel) l To uncover hidden norms

Phenomenological Study l l Understanding an experience from a research participant's point of view Interview several participants as to their perceptions of an experience Try to build a picture of the experience through using a combination of theories, literature in the area, illustrated by anecdotes, to build a detailed portrait of the experience Use of Max Weber’s “verstehen”

Topics For Field Research l Topics that defy simple quantification. l Topics where attitudes and behaviours are best understood within their natural setting. l l Social processes that take place over time. The study of meanings, practices, episodes, encounters, roles, relationships, groups, organizations, and settlements.

Sampling in field research l Types of nonprobability sampling methods commonly used: l l Quota sampling Snowball sampling Deviant cases Purposive sampling or judgmental sampling

Main Methods Used in Field Research: l Field research includes: l l l Case study approach Participant observation and nonparticipant observation Intensive interviewing

The Case Study Approach l l l l To try to develop an understanding of a social process by studying one case or a small number of cases in depth Can be done using a combination of intensive interviewing and observation Snapshot case studies Longitudinal case studies Pre-post case studies Patchwork case studies Comparative case studies.

Observation in Field Research l Preparing for the field: l 1. Background preparation and literature review l 2. Talking to informants l 3. Gaining entry into the group l l Gatekeepers Public vs. private settings

The Various Roles of the Observer (Raymond Gold’s levels) l A. Complete participant l B. Participant-as-observer l C. Observer-as-participant l D. Complete observer

Recording observations l Field journal l To record empirical data To record interpretations Guidelines for note taking l l l Don't trust your memory Take notes in stages Record everything

Organizing and Writing Notes l Rewrite your notes as soon as possible after making observations l l type or enter into a word-processing program Creating files helps organize field notes for analysis. l l l a. Chronological file as a master file. b. Background files (from literature review, and documentation of topic's history. ) c. Biographical files on key subjects in the study. d. Bibliographical files of all references related to study. e. Analytical files to categorize what you are observing. f. Cross-reference files may be useful to retrieve data.

Using computers in field research l some software programs are now available for field research notes and analysis of data Can save time, especially when analyzing data l See free demos of NVivo and XSight at: l http: //www. qsrinternational. com/products_free-trial -software. aspx

Data analysis in field work l l l Data analysis in field work is an ongoing process Constant interaction between data collection and data analysis. Look for: l l l Similarities, norms, and universals Dissimilarities, differences, and deviations from norms Selective perception can be a problem as you learn more about the topic

Asking Questions: The Field Research Interview l Types of qualitative interviews: l l l Structured Semistructured Depth l Field research most often uses unstructured interviews l The use of probes is important in field research

Conducting interviews l l l l Try to be interactive and sensitive to the language and concepts used by the interviewee Try to keep the agenda flexible Aim to go below the surface of the topic being discussed Explore what people say in detail Check you have understood respondents' meanings Try to discover the interviewee's own framework of meanings Avoid imposing own structures and assumptions Need to consider how perceived by interviewees and the effects of characteristics such as class, race, sex, and social distance on the interview

Repertoire Techniques Matching and mirroring l Indicates rapport l Uncomfortable silence l Create a long silent pause after a question l Echoing l “that happened to me too, “ or “I know what you mean” l Letting people talk l Avoid unintentional interruptions l Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010

Types of questions for qualitative interviews l l l Behaviour or experience Opinion or belief Feelings Knowledge Sensory Background or demographic

Questions to avoid: l l l Affectively worded ones: avoid inducing negative emotional response. Make questions as neutral as possible. Avoid asking “why? ” directly. Double-barrelled questions: only 1 issue, topic per question. Overly complex questions. Try to speak at same level, be clear, know the cultural background of the person to ensure you don’t offend Do some prior study of the group, be culturally sensitive and respectful of traditions and culture

Recording interviews l Notes written at the time l Notes written afterwards l Audio or videotaping

Researcher as research instrument l l Qualitative interviews require considerable skill on the part of the interviewer. The interviewer needs to notice how directive he or she is being Whether leading questions are being asked whether cues are picked up or ignored Whether interviewees are given enough time to explain what they mean

Maintaining control of the interview l l l Know what it is you want to find out Ask the right questions to get the information you need Give appropriate verbal and non-verbal feedback Good feedback vs. bad feedback Avoiding bias

Whyte’s Directiveness Scale l l l 1. Making encouraging noises 2. Reflecting on remarks made by the informant 3. Probing on the last remark by the informant 4. Probing an idea preceding the last remark by the informant 5. Probing an idea expressed earlier in the interview 6. Introducing a new topic (1=least directive, 6=most directive)

Focus Group l Group interview or discussion l Facilitated by a skilled moderator l

The Moderator’s Role l Uses moderator’s guide l Draws out information l Monitors informal

The Moderator’s Guide l Systematic and procedural guide l Introduction and introductory activities l Basic rules or guidelines l Question-and-answer l Special activities or exercises l Sensitive issues Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010

Bracketing Your Biases l l l l First, make a list of your characteristics: 1. your gender; 2. your age; 3. your ethnic or national identification; 4. your religion or philosophy of life; 5. your political party or orientation; 6. your favourite psychological theory. Add four more characteristics: words or phrases that are descriptive of you as an individual.

Bracketing (cont. ) l l l 1. List ways in which your characteristics might bias you in your efforts at research interviewing. 2. Then write how you might counteract these biases. 3. And then write how these efforts to counteract your biases might themselves lead to other biases!

Advantages of field research l Can study nonverbal behaviour l l 93% of communication non-verbal Words 7%, voice quality 38%, mannerisms 55% l Flexibility l Natural environment l Longitudinal analysis l Relatively inexpensive

Disadvantages of field research l l l l Not applicable to the investigation of large social settings Making generalizations can be problematic Biases, attitudes, and assumptions of the researcher can be problem Selective perception and memory Selectivity in data collection Presence of the researcher may change the system or group being studied Virtually impossible to replicate the findings

Validity and Reliability l Validity very high l l l Reliability low l l l Can document complexity of human behaviour Detailed descriptions Subjective Difficult to replicate Low external validity (generalizability)