Field Research Naturalistic and CaseStudy Research Graziano and

Field Research Naturalistic Observation (Chapter 6) n Archival Research (Chapter 6) n Surveys (Chapter

Challenge of Low-Constraint Research n Involves observation of participants in their natural surroundings –

Naturalistic Observation Examples n Darwin’s voyage on the HMS Beagle (the data behind his

Case-Study Examples n n n Freud’s study of patients while he formed his psychoanalytic

When to Use These Methods n n n For questions involving the natural flow

Information Gained from These Methods Provides new descriptive information n Can suggest hypotheses for

Problem Statements and Hypotheses n Problem statements are often general and flexible in low-constraint

Making Observations n Ways to observe behavior – Unobtrusive observation: observing behavior without participants’

Unobtrusive Measures of behavior that are not obvious to those being measured n Inherently

Archival Records n Exist independent of a research study – – – n n

Ethical Issues with Using Unobtrusive Measures n Use of unobtrusive measures (including archival records)

Sampling of Participants n Try to obtain a representative sample – Representative samples allow

Sampling of Situations n People (and animals) behave differently in different situations – To

Sampling of Behaviors n Even in the same situation, people may behave differently on

Evaluating the Data n Low-constraint data sets are a rich source of information –

Limitations Poor representativeness n Poor replicability n Ex post facto fallacy n Limitations of

Poor Representativeness Most low-constraint studies have small, nonrandom samples n Rarely do the samples

Poor Replicability n Studies can be replicated only if – The procedures are clearly

Ex Post Facto Fallacy n Definition: Interpreting an observed contingency as if it represented

Limitations of the Observer n n Low-constraint studies often rely on the observational skills

Experimenter Bias n It is difficult in low-constraint research for the researcher to avoid

Going Beyond the Data n n Low-constraint data are often intriguing Nevertheless, one must

Ethical Principles n Primary Ethical Issues in Low. Constraint Research are: – Informed Consent

Summary Low-constraint research provide valuable information n Types of low-constraint research n – Naturalistic

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Field Research: Naturalistic and Case-Study Research Graziano and Raulin Research Methods: Chapter 6 This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: (1) Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; (2) Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; (3) Any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Field Research Naturalistic Observation (Chapter 6) n Archival Research (Chapter 6) n Surveys (Chapter 13) n Case Studies (Chapter 6) n Program Evaluation (Chapter 13) n Field Experiments (Chapter 13) n Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Challenge of Low-Constraint Research n Involves observation of participants in their natural surroundings – Can be difficult to observe behavior in natural surroundings – Often we are not sure what behaviors are important until we begin observations – Without the controls of the laboratory, participants are free to do what they want to do, and not what we are hoping to observe Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Naturalistic Observation Examples n Darwin’s voyage on the HMS Beagle (the data behind his theory of natural selection) Goodall's study of chimpanzees n Levine’s study of the Love Canal n Davis’s study of public spanking n Rosenhan’s study of psychiatric hospitalization n Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Case-Study Examples n n n Freud’s study of patients while he formed his psychoanalytic theory Witmer’s study of children in the first psychology clinic in North America Piaget’s study of the development of children Phillips’s study of people with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) First’s study of people with apotemnophilia Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

When to Use These Methods n n n For questions involving the natural flow of behavior When first studying a research area When testing the feasibility of a procedure As a way of discovering contingencies When interested in a single individual To test the generalizability of laboratory findings Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Information Gained from These Methods Provides new descriptive information n Can suggest hypotheses for later higher-constraint research n Can negate a general proposition n Provides information about contingencies n Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Problem Statements and Hypotheses n Problem statements are often general and flexible in low-constraint research studies – Problem statements and hypotheses may evolve (i. e, start out general and become more specific) as the study progresses n Unable to test causal hypotheses with low-constraint research Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Making Observations n Ways to observe behavior – Unobtrusive observation: observing behavior without participants’ knowledge – Participant observation: observing behavior while participating in the situation n Want to reduce measurement reactivity – People behaving differently when observed n n Reactive measures: enhance reactivity Nonreactive measures: minimize reactivity Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Archival Records n Exist independent of a research study – – – n n Kept for purposes other than research May be valuable in some research studies Examples: government records, school and hospital records, census data, etc. Access to such archival records are restricted by legal and ethical constraints Valuable data source for some studies Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Ethical Issues with Using Unobtrusive Measures n Use of unobtrusive measures (including archival records) raises ethical issues – Participants are not given the right to say no – Some of the archival records contain sensitive data n Researchers need to show the necessity for unobtrusive measures and safeguards to protect the rights of the participants – Must have IRB approval Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Sampling of Participants n Try to obtain a representative sample – Representative samples allow us to generalize findings to the larger group n Sampling is often not under the control of the researcher in low-constraint research – Therefore, caution is required in interpreting the results – Generalize only to similar participants and NOT to the general population Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Sampling of Situations n People (and animals) behave differently in different situations – To get an adequate picture of behavior, we need to sample the behavior in many situations n n Sampling many situations will indicate how consistent behavior is It also gives clues about what factors may be affecting the behavior Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Sampling of Behaviors n Even in the same situation, people may behave differently on different occasions – Repeated sampling of behavior in a specific situation will indicate the consistency of the behavior n Repeated observation (essentially a replication) prevents us from developing theories based on a single, unusual behavioral response Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Evaluating the Data n Low-constraint data sets are a rich source of information – Data usually needs to be coded (i. e. , simplified and organized) – Analyses depend on the questions and the type of data n Must be cautious in interpreting data from low-constraint research Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Poor Representativeness Most low-constraint studies have small, nonrandom samples n Rarely do the samples represent the population n Consequently, it is dangerous to generalize your findings too broadly n Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Poor Replicability n Studies can be replicated only if – The procedures are clearly specified – The procedures were followed exactly n In low-constraint research – Procedures are often not specified – They may change as the study continues – They are often unique to the observer n Therefore, replication is difficult Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Ex Post Facto Fallacy n Definition: Interpreting an observed contingency as if it represented a causal connection – Low-constraint observation will never provide the controls for such strong conclusions n If ex post facto conclusions are interpreted as hypotheses to be studied, and not as established facts, they serve a useful scientific purpose Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Limitations of the Observer n n Low-constraint studies often rely on the observational skills of the researcher Detailed procedures are not specified – Specific procedures decrease flexibility – However, detailed procedures could constrain the observer in a way that would limit experimenter biases n Give up some control for the flexibility Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Experimenter Bias n It is difficult in low-constraint research for the researcher to avoid influencing participants (called Experimenter reactivity) n Experimenter effects can be controlled in higher-constraint research Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Going Beyond the Data n n Low-constraint data are often intriguing Nevertheless, one must be careful in drawing strong conclusions Rosenhan broadly over-interpreted his data, even distorting the data Interpretation should take into account other information we know about a phenomenon Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Ethical Principles n Primary Ethical Issues in Low. Constraint Research are: – Informed Consent – Confidentiality – Sensitivity of the Data n An IRB can give the researcher valuable guidance Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

Summary Low-constraint research provide valuable information n Types of low-constraint research n – Naturalistic observation – Case-study research n The inherent limitations of these methods demand appropriate caution Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)