Feedstuffs Used in Livestock Diets Their Classification Descriptions

Feedstuffs Used in Livestock Diets (Their Classification, Descriptions and Nutrients Content)

1. Objectives • Objectives: – Understanding of feeds grouping and their general nutritional properties – Identification of various feeds and their nutrient content

Feedstuffs Classification Feedstuffs are generally grouped into two groups: 1. Roughages 2. Concentrates

1. Roughages are also called as forages Characteristics of Roughage Feedstuffs Ø Bulky (Low weight per unit volume) Ø High content of cell wall material (25 -30% crude fiber) Ø Mostly for ruminant animals

ØGenerally low in energy ØHigher in fiber ØHigher mineral content ØExtremely palatable to ruminants ØNutritive value can be extremely variable (species, age, parts) ØMust be present in ruminant’s rations to maintain health rumen and milk fat content ØLimited inclusion in beef finishing diets, excluded from swine or non ruminant’s rations

Roughages classification based on nutrients: 1. Proteinaceous Roughages ○ CP content 15 – 30 % ○ Source of protein ○ Highly digestible ○ Some contain anti nutritive factors ○ Leguminous trees/shrubs

2. Carbonaceous Roughages ○ CP content <10% ○ CF content >18% ○ Source of fiber ○ Non-legume forages, low quality roughages ─ Grasses ─ Crop residues

Roughages classification based on physical condition: Pasture, Range Plants, & Fresh Fed Forages 2. Hay/Dry Forages & Roughages 3. Silage 4. Crop residues 1.

1. Pasture, Range Plants, & Fresh Fed Forages: ○ Pasture grass ○ Forages that are not allowed to ferment before feeding

2. Hay or Dry Forages & Roughages ○All feeds that are cut and cured ○Carbonaceous Roughages Generally low in protein Straw Stalks Weathered grass ○ Proteinaceous Roughages Legume hays Some grass hays Legume/grass mixtures

3. Silages • Ensiled forages • Carbonaceous – Corn silage – Grass silage • Proteinaceous – Alfalfa silage – Clover silage

4. Crop Residues Parts of a crop after the main product was harvested − Straw − Sugarcane/maize top

2. Concentrates • Feedstuffs containing high concentration of nutrients (energy, protein, mineral or vitamin or their combination)

Concentrates classification based on nutrients: 1. Energy Concentrate Feeds • <20% CP, <18% CF • May be ensiled • Carbonaceous Concentrates – All cereal grains & sorghums – Byproduct feeds » Bran » Middlings » Cobs » Molasses

2. Protein Concentrate Feeds • >20% CP • Vegetable Origin – – Soybean Meal Cottonseed Meal Corn Gluten Meal Brewer’s Dried Grains • Animal Origin – Animal tissues » Meat & Bone Meal » Blood Meal » Most are banned/restricted from livestock diets – Fish Products » Fish Meal – Milk Products » Whey protein – Feather Meal

3. Mineral Supplements • Calcium Carbonate • Limestone • Others 4. Vitamin Supplements • Fish Oil • Others 5. Feed Additives

Characteristics of Concentrate Feeds Carbonaceous Concentrates ○ <20% CP, <18% fiber ○ Generally, high energy feeds ○ General Nutritive Characteristics − − − − High in energy Low in fiber Low in protein Low protein quality and high variability Minerals Low Ca Med P

• Examples – Corn » 80% TDN » 8 -9% CP » Med P, low Ca » Recent technologies – high lysine corn, waxy corn, high-oil corn » Alternative feeding forms – Oats » 65 -70% TDN » 12% CP » Very palatable, more expensive to feed

– Dried Beet Pulp » 65 -70% TDN » 8 -10% CP » Byproduct of sugar beet processing » ~18% CF – Molasses » 55 -75% TDN » 3 -7% CP (mostly NPN) » Byproduct from same industry as above » Usually fed in what form? » What are the advantages to feeding?

– Animal Fat » Byproduct of rendering » Treated w/ antioxidant to prevent rancidity » Why do we feed it? » 5% max in ruminant diets, 10% in nonruminants – Dried Bakery Product » What might this include? » Similar to corn in energy, higher in fat, and salt?

– Proteinaceous Concentrates • Quality – Kinds, amounts, compositions of amino acids – Essential Amino Acids » Must be supplemented » PVT TIM HALL » Phenylalanine, Valine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Isoleucine, Methionine, Histidine, Arginine, Leucine, Lysine – NPN may be used as a protein source (only in ruminants)

• Examples – Urea » 281% CP » Use only in very small amounts » Very effective for feeding rumen bacteria – Soybean Meal » Most commonly used plant protein supplement » 44% or 48% CP available (depends on how much its diluted w/ soyhulls) » 71 -80% TDN » Very low in fiber » Very broad amino acid profile

» What other forms are used? • Animal/Marine protein supplements – Derived from meat/poultry packing/rendering, or from the marine industry, or surplus milk – Used only to improve the CP of basal feeds and improve amino acid profile – Balances protein sources (plant vs. animal) – Blood Meal » 80+% CP » Highly unpalatable » High rumen undegradable protein for ruminants

– Fish Meal » 35 -70% CP » Excellent protein quality and good source of B vits – Whey protein » 11% CP, 61% lactose » Used in milk replacers or pig starter diets » Highly palatable, excellent source of protein – Animal Waste » Nutrient content varies » Used primarily in ruminant diets » Usually high in NPN » Has proven to be fairly effective, in certain diets

• Feed Grain Byproducts – Corn byproducts • Corn Gluten Meal – Dried residue remaining after removal of most of the starch, germ, and bran – 46 -60% CP • Corn Gluten Feed – Dried residue remaining after removal of most of the starch, germ, gluten, but contains bran – 20 -25% CP

• Distiller’s Dried Grains – Byproduct of the alcohol brewing industry – 25 -27% CP, 9 -11% CF • Distiller’s Wet Grains – Byproduct of ethanol production – Use usually restricted to geographical area close to the distiller – Will ferment if not used quickly – Wheat byproducts • Wheat middlings – Fine particles of bran, germ, shorts, tailings

– 16 -18% CP – More commonly fed in swine diets, unpalatability makes its use limited in ruminants – Soybean Hulls • 12% CP, 78% TDN • Very good for replacing other high fiber feeds, without losing too much fiber • Very palatable

• Small Grains (wheat, oats, etc. ) – Generally same seeding rate as for grain, may increase if going to cut for silage – Effective in the pasture – Harvesting for silage should occur around boot stage – 10 -22% CP, 62 -72% TDN – If harvested early, can mimic corn silage – Be cautious of low Mg levels, may see grass tetany

• Corn Silage – – – Most popular silage Extremely palatable Moderate to high energy, low in protein May not be most efficient in a finishing diet Many varieties available High grain content is desirable • Corn Stover (Stalklage) – – Harvested at or just after grain harvest Ensiled Should be fairly fine-chopped to ensure packing Good for wintering cattle, somewhat high in energy

Feedstuffs, their description and nutrients content (see also Table of Nutrients Content in Folder Table of Nutrient Content)

Corn Gluten Meal (CGM) • Is produced from wet milling of corn for starch and syrup. • yellow or yellowish • Two corn gluten meals are produced, a 40 percent and 60 percent CP supplement, with the 60 percent being the most common. • Are good sources of UIP. Energy content of corn gluten meal is only slightly less than corn grain. • It is an especially good source of the amino acid cysteine, but must be balanced with other proteins for lysine • Limit amounts to 5 pounds per cow per day because of palatability problems. (feeding the dairy herds feedstuffs, feeding recomm, limits use of feedstuffs)

Corn Gluten Meal (CGM) Appearance: Yellow powder Protein 63%-70% (wet basis) Fat 4. 5 % Crude fiber < 2 % Ash < 2 % Phosphorus 0. 5 % Total digestible nutrients 85 % Moisture < 10% Digestible protein 98 % Methionine 1. 6% Xanthophyll 225 mg. Lb. Calcium 4. 5 % Acid detergent fiber 6. 2 % Net energy 84. 1 mcal/100 lbs Metabolize energy 1, 756 calories/lb. Neutral detergent fiber 12. 6 %

Corn Gluten Feed (CGF)

Soybean Meal • Soybean meal is the product remaining after extracting most of the oil from whole soybeans. The oil may be removed by solvent extraction or by an expeller process in which the beans are heated and squeezed. The nutrient composition of the oil extracted soybean meal 48 is shown in the table below. • Soybean meal is high in protein and energy and is one of the most commonly used protein supplements in North America. It is a palatable feedstuff and may be used as the major protein supplement in rations for dairy cattle.

Brewer’s Grain • • • also called Brewer's grain or Draff, Beer meal) a byproduct of beer brewing consisting of the residue of malt and grain which remains in the mash-kettle after the mashing and lautering process. consists primarily of grain husks, pericarp, and fragments of endosperm. By mass, brewer’s grains consist of about half carbohydrates, and the rest being mostly proteins and lignin. Carbohydrates include traces of starch, cellulose, β-Glucans, and arabinoxylans. Brewer’s grain is considered to be a good source of un-degradable protein and water-soluble vitamins in animal feed. It can be fed as wet brewer's grains or dried brewer's grains. It is quite palatable and is readily consumed by animals.

Dried Destiled Grain with Solubles (DDGS

Dried Destiled Grain with Solubles (DDGS

Dried Destiled Grain with Solubles (DDGS

Dried Destiled Grain with Solubles (DDGS

Wheat Gluten is also called vital wheat protein, is a good modifying agent of dough, is a high-protein polymer separated from the wheat, made up of all kinds of of aminophenol, is rich in vegetable protein nutritional resources. Because of their unique viscoelastic, extension, coagulation and film, emulsion liposuction, is widely used in the food industry as the basis raw materials, and, it is used in the production of high-quality and diverse food. At the same time, it is also widely used in animal feed, packaging, clothing and other industries. Appearance Taste and smell Moisture Protein(%) Ash Fat Water absorption Fineness Total plate count Coliforms Pathogenic bacterium Pale yellow powder Neutral, No special smell Max. 8% Min. 75% Max. 1% Max. 0. 2% Min. 170% Min. 99% Max. 1000 cfu pre gram Max. 30 MPN per 100 grams Negative

Fish Meal • • it is refined by high quality sea fish through braising, cooking, grinding, drying and crushing SPECIFICATIONS Protein: 65% min. Moisture: 10% max. Fat: 10% max. Ash: 15% max. Sand: 2% max. Salt: 2% max.

Fish Meal (FM) • If made from good quality whole fish, properly processed, it is the highest quality protein source commonly available • rich source also of energy and minerals • highly digestible, highly palatable, also serves as an attractant • usually contains about 65% protein, that is around 80% digestible • high in LYS, MET (deficient in plant sources)

Fish Meal (FM) • Fish meal also contains 1 -2. 5% n-6 fatty acids, essential to many fish and all shrimp • if made from byproducts, its quality is not as good as trawler-caught • only problem observed: high ash content can sometimes result in mineral imbalance • used sparingly because of high cost • can be partially replaced by soybean meal and other animal meals

Fish Meal (FM) • When using FM, one must remember that it cannot be stored forever • can rancidify due to high lipid content • further, not all FM is created equal • some types (menhaden) appear to be superior to others (sardine meal) • FM must be very well ground and sieved to help remove indigestible parts • big producer countries are USA, Peru, Mexico, Ecuador

Soybean Meal (SBM) • Soybean meal has one of the best essential amino acid profiles of all protein-rich plant feedstuffs • Table 5. 3 (Lovell) • SBM does not appear to be deficient in any EAA for catfish • can be deficient wrt eel, because their MET/CYS requirement is twice that of catfish • some fish find SBM unpalatable, for this reason maximum levels are suggested

Soybean Meal (SBM) • Soybean meal is commonly used to spare fish meal, however, only to a point • true for chinook, but not for catfish • shrimp will consume high SBM feeds, but diet must be supplemented with fish meal at some point • another problem involves losses in energy, minerals and lipids in diets where SBM replaces FM or other animal byproduct proteins soy protein

Soybean Meal (SBM) • Another variety of soybean meal is known as “dehulled” • de-hulled soybean meal contains 25% less ME, 85% less available P and 90% less n-3 FA’s than anchovy meal • soybeans also contain trypsin-inhibitors • trypsin inhibitor reduces digestibility of soy protein by the enzyme trypsin • solution: most soybeans are roasted prior to milling (destroys inhibitor)

Full-fat Soybeans • Full fat soybean meal is different from regular SBM in that it has a full fat complement • fat has not been solvent extracted • 18% fat vs 0. 5% • often used as an energy source or for general balancing of the formula • mainly used in salmonid (cold water) fish diets • REM: too high fat = reduced nutrient intake

Grains and By-products • Grains are primarily used as COH sources • when whole, they contribute about 62%72% of dietary starch • starches are fairly well digested (60 -70%), • heating via extrusion improves digestibility by 10=15% • can also be used as binding agents

Grains and By-products • Corn is commonly used in the U. S. , but is high in xanthophyll (a pigment), giving tissue a yellow color • corn gluten meal is high in protein (60%) and contains high levels of MET (excellent formulation) • rice bran often used in developing countries due to local rice production • rice bran is a reasonable COH source, but is high in fiber and fat • wheat gluten is a good protein source, but too expensive, often used as a binder

Animal By-products • • Meat and bone meal is a byproduct of the slaughter house contains 50 -55% crude protein quality is low, so only marginally useful and varies dependent upon meat source can be a good source of energy, P, TM’s another problem: high ash content digestibility improved by flash- or spray-drying poultry by-product meal (PBM) is often used by mills also producing chicken feed feather meal high in protein, but indigestible MM MBM

Crustacean Meals • • • Shrimp waste meal is a reasonably good feed ingredient, if heads are included otherwise, the shell is primarily chitin and of limited digestibility the ammonia in chitin accounts for about 10 -15% of the nitrogen in whole meal also a reasonable source of n-3 fatty acids, cholestrerol and astaxanthin (carotenoid) highly palatable and often serves as an attractant in feeds at 1 -2% others: krill meal, Artemia meal krill meal

Fats and Oils • Used as energy sources, provide essential fatty acids, attractant, coating of pellet to reduce abrasion • both animal and plant fats can be used, animal fats cheaper, better attractants • marine lipids often added as oils if FM level is low (otherwise no source of marine FA’s) • sources: menhaden, shark, cod liver • must be careful in storage of oil, feeds with oils due to rancidification menhaden oil

Fibrous Feedstuffs • Most monogastric animals (e. g. , fish) do not digest fibrous feedstuffs well • it is unlikely that adding fiber to diets already with more than 35% will have any beneficial effect • high fiber content reduces binding capacity of feeds, inhibits intake (due to reduced palatability), increases rate of passage and waste production • sources: brans rice kernel

Binding Agents • Binding agents are really needed for pelletized feeds, but not necessarily for extruded feeds • in extruded feeds, all ingredients are gelatinized by high temperature and bind together well as a result of the process • show Table 5. 4 (Lovell, page 118)

Binding Agents • most organic binders are good for about 30 min of submergence • starch is often used at over 10%, however it will hydrate and swell the pellet • chemical binders (e. g. , Basfin) have good binding potential, form cross-linkages with COH and PRO, but are toxic

Non-nutrient Diet Components

Basic Facts • In addition to the essential nutrients, feeds may contain organic and inorganic materials that have various effects on animal: • beneficial, detrimental or negligible • they can affect growth, health or the processed product • may be naturally occurring, intentionally or unintentionally added • can be produced via microbial growth

Toxins and Antimetabolites • The more important toxins affecting animal feeding are those associated with molds • these are called “mycotoxins” • three important genera are Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium • they exist and grow anywhere as long as there is enough COH substrate, no less than 14% moisture, adequate temperature, oxygen • usually produced in feedstuffs prior to harvest, but also result from poor storage

Aflatoxin • Aflatoxin is the mycotoxin of greatest concern in feeding of culture species • both outright toxic and carcinogenic • liver (hepatoma) and blood clotting problems • rainbow trout are highly sensitive at 1 ug/kg exposure • traditionally, sources include corn, cottonseed and peanuts • aflatoxin contamination varies year to year

Ochratoxin • These are compounds produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium molds • widely found in nature • typically associated with kidney toxicity • toxic level is 4. 7 mg/kg in diet • other mold toxins have been found in warm-blooded animals, but not in fish • most mold toxins also destroy nutrients in feeds • example: Pseudomonas can separate glutamic acid from folic acid, making it ineffective

Microbial Toxins in Commercial Feeds • Usually not known that the feed is contaminated • commercially-processed feeds are less likely to have these toxins • screened against international transport and by feed manufacturers by law • must contain less than 20 ppb • up to manufacturer to require testing • not destroyed by steam pelleting or extrusion • presence in feeds reduced by proprionic acid

Histamine, etc. • This is a toxic compound found in fish meal, a typical feed ingredient • results from bacterial removal of COOH (carboxylic acid) from the EAA histidine • comes from improper storage of raw fish prior to production of fish meal • causes a reduction in growth rate • usually comes from “dark” meat portion of fish • other fish meal toxin is “gizzerosine”

Phytic Acid, Gossypol • Phytic acid is an organic molecule related to inositol Phytic acid • integral component of plant feedstuffs and holds 6070% of the phosphorus • problem is, it’s poorly available to fish • reduces availability of zinc • “Gossypol” is a component of pigment lands in the “Gossypol” cotton plant • limits availability of cottonseed meal used in feeds (suppresses growth rate and causes liver damage)

Fish Oils, Fiber • Marine fish oils contain 20 -25% PUFA’s • the “autoxidation” of PUFA’s results in formation of large numbers of free radicals and peroxide compounds • these are toxic due to reaction with other nutrients, limiting availability • also cause cellular/subcellular damage • severity of effect reduced by Vit E • fiber can also be mildly “toxic” as it increases rate of gut passage • high rate of passage causes reduced availability of nutrients

Diet Additives: Hormones • Hormonal control used to produce mono sex cultures of fish • reduces reproduction/increases growth • ex. Androgenic steroids (ethyltestosterone) fed to tilapia fry = 90% males • does not work the same on all fish • 17 -alpha-methyltestosterone improves growth and survival in salmonids • andorgenic better than estrogenic • used as implants in cattle

Pellet Binders • Steam pelleted feeds contain binders • these are used for improving water stability (reduced leaching and nutrient loss) • two different types: organic matrix (lignosulfonates or polysaccharides) • other type: chemical compounds (sodium hexametaphosphate) • no evidence of detrimental effect on aquaculture species

Antibiotics • Some feeds can be formulated with antibiotics for treatment of Vibriosis, other bacterial infections • Three antibiotics approved in U. S. are sulfadimethoxine, sulfamerazine and terrymycin (oxytetracycline, OTC) • OTC commerically available as “medicated” fish (shrimp) feed, 1, 500 mg/kg • Must not feed medicated diets within 14 -21 days from slaughter/harvest (more regulations!)

Attractants • Attractants are materials added to feeds to serve as intake (feeding) stimulants • They are cost effective since they cause shrimp/fish to eat feeds that otherwise would not be attractive (consumed) • Facilitates inclusion of by-products • Usual inclusion level is around 0. 5 -1. 0 %, largely due to cost • Examples: krill meal, Artemia meal, fish oils, fish meal • Sometimes used to reduce protein content of feed (but most also feed more frequently)

Antioxidants • Oxidation of lipids in feeds or feedstuffs can cause reduction of the nutritional value of certain lipids and vitamins • It can also result in production of toxic free radicals and peroxides (REM? ) • Potential formation of these toxic compounds reduced by synthetic compounds such as BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole, BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) • Also via natural compounds (Vit E)