Exploring race disability and status in an age

Exploring race, dis/ability, and status in an age of increased anti-Latinx immigrant sentiment Cristina Santamaría Graff, Ph. D. Assistant Professor of Special Education Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, IUPUI

Introduction: Peeling the onion… There are many layers to this story.

We begin at the center…

Next, we begin to move outward crossing time and space… El futuro, future Familia DISCRIT El pasado – past El presente, present

Here and Now 2017

Unpacking the rhetoric to Trump’s speech ▪ “Immigration reform should mean something else entirely. It should mean improvements to our laws and policies to make life better for American citizens. ” ▪ “our forgotten working people” ▪ “valid concerns expressed by decent and patriotic citizens…” ▪ “not everyone who seeks to join this country will be able to successfully assimilate… It’s our right, as a sovereign nation, to choose immigrants that we think are the likeliest to thrive and flourish and love us. ” ▪ Then there is the issue of security. Countless American lives have been stolen because our politicians have failed in their duty to secure our borders and enforce our laws like they have to be enforced. I have met with many of the great parents who lost their children to sanctuary cities and open borders. ”

Current images reinforcing derogatory stereotypes Artist’s depiction of how Americans view Mexicans as “dirty bandits” and “thugs. ” The Mexican as domestic workers – maids, gardeners; with the assumption of not being ignorant and not educated The Mexican as lazy or drunk. Cerveza, anyone? The Mexican as “Buffoon” – someone that will simply entertain us, but who has no real voice at the table.

Mexican as the Enemy • “Build that Wall!” How politicians and the media have criminalized and marginalized Mexican people since the 1800 s, particularly since the Mexican-American War, has vilified their diverse and rich heritage and undermined significant contributions Mexicans and – by extension – other Latinx groups have made politically, economically, and socially. Constructing the enemy: • 1800 s Manifest Destiny: Under this expansionist ideology, White Americans were God’s chosen and had the right to claim land at the expense of savages and heathens who were deemed “culturally inferior” (Berkhofer, 1978; Gómez, 2007; Villenas & Deyhle, 1999).

Mexican American War 1846 - 1848 President Polk declared War against Mexico, to the chagrin of abolitionists in the Whig party who were concerned that expansion of land would equate to expansion of slavery, by framing Mexicans as “menaces, ” murderers, and instigators of hostile acts: May 11, 1846: “After reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American Soil. She has proclaimed hostilities that have commenced, and that two nations are at war. ” “Progressive Democracy”

Now, therefore, I, JAMES K. POLK, President of the United States of America, do hereby proclaim the same to all whom it may concern; and I do specially enjoin on all persons holding offices, civil or military, under the authority of the United States, that they be vigilant and zealous in discharging the duties respectively incident thereto: and I do moreover exhort all the good people of the United States, as they love their country, and they feel the wrongs which have been forced them on the last resort of injured nations, and as they consult the best means, under the blessing of Divine Providence, of abridging its calamities, that they exert themselves in preserving order, in promoting concord, in maintaining the authority and the efficacy of laws, and in supporting and invigorating all the measures which may be adopted by the constituted authorities for obtaining a speedy, a just, and an honorable peace.

Criminalization as an important tactic ▪ On 2 February 1848, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed and much of Mexico’s land, power, and resources were lost. The treaty validated the United States’ title to Texas and, additionally, ceded the massive areas of California and New Mexico territories while, simultaneously, ‘converted a good part of [Mexico’s] population into foreigners in its own land’ (Portes & Rumbaut, 1996, p. 273). ▪ Now that Mexicans were on “American soil” and were seen as a “threat” to American freedom, behaviors that were typical and accepted before the Mexican American War – such as Mexicans residing on or entering into Texas territory – were now CRIMINAL (Meyer & Sherman, 1991). ▪ In the 1880 s and 1890 s, in reaction to fear of foreign invasion – ‘whether from armies during A Harper’s Weekly cartoon satirizing the widespread fear that a post-war, pre. Reconstruction America would descend into a “Mexican” state of constant civil war – hence the American Eagle sitting on the “Rock of Justice” looking over the disheveled, Mexican solider. wartime or from foreign migrants during peacetime’ (Ngai, 2003, p. 71) – the Supreme Court established the doctrine of plenary power giving legislative and executive branches sovereignty in regulating all aspects of immigration in relation to individual rights – elected representatives could write legislation reflective of theirs’ and their constituents’ views on which foreigners could ‘assimilate. ’

ILLEGAL ▪ In 1917, 1921, and 1924 Congress passed a series of immigration acts that served to restrict, rather than regulate, the flow of immigrants into the US. These acts aimed to preserve the ideal of white American homogeneity by restricting or banning immigrants from specific countries (Reimers, 1981). ▪ 1924: For the first time, legislators created a new class of person – the ‘illegal alien. ’ Through the 1924 act, both mass illegal immigration and deportation policy resulted in heavier enforcement along the US – Mexico border (Ngai, 2003). ▪ Additionally, the concept of illegality disproportionately impacted Mexican people who were largely categorized as ‘undesirable’ (Inda, 2006, p. 68) as compared to Western Europeans and Canadians whose racialization as white, regardless of immigrant status, facilitated their national assimilation into American society (Ngai, 2003).

Centering Dis. Crit Familia Dis. Crit

Dis/ability Critical Race Studies (Dis. Crit) (Annamma, Connor, & Ferri, 2016) ▪ A theoretical framework that combines aspects of Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Disability Studies (DS) to examine connections “between the interdependent constructions of race and dis/ability in education and society” (p. 9). ▪ Specifically in this presentation I consider the interdependence of race, class, status, language, and dis/ability as important markers impacting Sandra’s and Antonella’s lived experiences as well as those of the parents/families whom they represent. ▪ Further, how each of these markers & their intersections are located within a specific time/space/context has consequential and, often, detrimental implications for Latinx populations.

Dis. Crit Tenets (7) #3 Dis. Crit emphasizes the social constructions of race and ability and yet recognizes the material and psychological impacts of being labeled as raced or dis/abled, which sets one outside of the western cultural norms. #5 Dis. Crit considers legal and historical aspects of dis/ability and race and how both have been used separately and together to deny the rights of some citizens. (Annamma, Connor, & Ferri, 2016, p. 19)

“Families as Faculty” Project – (Fall Semester 2016 - present) Parent Participants (n = 8) ▪ 7 female (4 white, English-speaking, U. S. -born; 1 African-American, English-speaking, U. S. born; 2 Latina; bilingual (Spanish/English); 1 born in Mexico, 1 born in Nicaragua ▪ 1 male, white, English-speaking, U. S. -born Data sources that inform this presentation (Primary & Secondary) üTranscripts from audio/video recordings of parent planning sessions and family-led discussions üTranscripts from focus group interview and parent individual interviews ü Researcher observational notes, including those taken at meetings in which Sandra and Antonella were parent leaders

#3 Dis. Crit emphasizes the social constructions of race and ability and yet recognizes the material and psychological impacts of being labeled as raced or dis/abled, which sets one outside of the western cultural norms. Familia Dis. Crit

In their own lived experiences Sandra and Antonella both faced the following challenges: v Discrimination – not being taken seriously when advocating for their children. Sandra’s request to have her daughter with Down Syndrome included in general education to the greatest extent possible was not supported for years until she brought in a parent advocate. She felt that her language and race were significant barriers in her ability to get appropriate services for her daughter. “I quickly realized that most people in the school setting judged her based on her diagnosis. Due to her diagnosis, the school had low expectations in my daughter’s ability. Most of the time the committee did not want to take in account my opinion. ”

Antonella describes how she was known as “The Mexican” by many of therapists and school administrators she had to work with in order to get her son the multiple therapies he needed on a daily basis: “Everyone knew me as ‘The Mexican. ’ So I called a service provider and I remember her saying, ‘I’m going to put you on hold, I’m putting the phone down, ’ [but she didn’t] and saying, ‘that’s the Mexican calling again. ’ Yeah, that’s fine [sarcastically], that’s okay, she remembers me. ’” As a mother who was very involved with her child’s therapies, Antonella put up with people referring to her as “The Mexican” if it meant that her son would eventually receive the services for which she was advocating. She knew that people’s perception of her race and assumptions about her understandings of special education services (and dis/ability) made it more difficult for her to be listened to and taken seriously. It usually took several phone calls and follow-ups for Antonella to receive what she or her son needed to receive or maintain services.

#5 Dis. Crit considers legal and historical aspects of dis/ability and race and how both have been used separately and together to deny the rights of some citizens. Familia Dis. Crit

Excerpts from Sandra’s and Antonella’s family-led discussion – What they want pre-service teachers to know Latinx families of children with dis/abilities face added stressors due to: “Our legal system and front line police officers lack the language knowledge to communicate with Hispanos when needed. This has caused confusion in cases where critical information was lost in translation” – Antonella Fears: ▪ Deportation –This fear stops families to report abuse, health problems, living conditions and concerns in behaviors at school. ▪ Fear to access services – connected with the legal status and language proficiency. ▪ Child Protection Services – families feel inadequate when caring for their children in a culture that is not their own, where the social rules are not clear to them and feel judged from any professional that comes in contact with them. This causes a very real fear for families with small children.

Being “illegal” – being the “enemy” How does this anti-Latinx immigrant sentiment impact parents/families of children with disabilities?

Latinx families of children with dis/abilities at parent-to-parent support group meeting CONCERNS THAT LATINX FAMILIES WHO ARE UNDOCUMENTED ARE CURRENTLY EXPERIENCING: üWhat do I do if ICE (Immigration Customs Enforcement) comes to my house or workplace? üWhat is expedited removal and what are the criteria for this type of removal? üIn Indiana, a police officer can legally ask you for your name and address if they think you have committed a crime. What should I do if I am approached? üDoes having a child with special needs give me permission to stay in the United States? What is cancelation of removal and can I qualify for this? üCan I request deferred action because of hardships directly related to the challenges associated with my child’s disability? üWho will watch my children if I am forced to leave the US or am detained?

Big Topic: “La Visa U” ▪ The U Visa is an immigration benefit that can be sought by victims of certain crimes who are currently assisting or have previously assisted law enforcement in the investigation or prosecution of a crime, or who are likely to be helpful in the investigation or prosecution of criminal activity. ▪ The U Visa provides eligible victims with nonimmigrant status in order to temporarily remain in the United States while assisting law enforcement. ▪ Immigrants, especially women and children, can be particularly vulnerable to crimes like human trafficking, domestic violence, sexual assault, and other abuse due to a variety of factors. These include but are not limited to, language barriers, separation from family and friends, lack of understanding of U. S. laws, fear of deportation, and cultural differences. ▪ Congress recognized that victims who do not have legal status may be reluctant to help in the investigation or prosecution of criminal activity for fear of removal from the U. S.

Parents’ shared stories ▪ Mother asked about qualifying for La Visa U because she had witnessed someone close to her getting hit over the head with a bottle. She did not go to court as a witness, even though she was subpoenaed because she was afraid of being deported at the courthouse. Not showing up, however, may impact her ability in the future to apply for La Visa U if something similar occurs. ▪ Father was at work and his car wouldn’t start. A White man started to help him, but then robbed him using both a gun and knife. The father was injured. He filed a police report and may qualify for La Visa U if he assists with the investigation. ▪ A grandmother has a son who is 17 years-old who has a young child with dis/abilities. His girlfriend is an American citizen, but he was arrested recently for driving under the influence. He has lived in the U. S. for 12 years, but it is unclear now if he will be allowed to stay even if he claims “hardship” (grounds for cancelation of removal) because of his child’s needs. He now has a criminal record and will, most likely, be deported. ▪ A mother was in a car accident, but was not at fault. She is afraid to go to court even though she does not have a criminal record. She has two children with dis/abilities and does not want to risk being deported even though she has been seriously injured.

Where do we go from here? To best assist Latinx families of children with dis/abilities during this time of heightened anti-Latinx, anti-immigration sentiment, we can: Future implications ü Become acquainted with our basic rights that are inclusive of our undocumented populations. ü Serve as a notary to sign the Power of Attorney or Standby Guardianship form ü Help families create a safety plan in case ICE officials approach their home, workplace, or car. ü Become a first-responder to document ICE raids at the home, workplace, or in public spaces. ü Attend protests, rallies, and demonstrations to show your support of these families ü Bring these themes into your courses and class discussions

Information Find out more information about how you can become an advocate for these families: http: //www. indycan. org/ Indy. CAN is a multi-racial, multi-class, multi-faith, non-partisan organization that reaches tens of thousands of people committed to advancing the leadership of the most marginalized (returning citizens, immigrants, excluded workers and youth). Indy. CAN’s "Opportunity for All" platform includes: ▪ End Mass Incarceration and Violence ▪ Economic Dignity ▪ Immigrant Inclusion

REFERENCES Annamma, S. A. , Connor, D. J. , & Ferri, B. A. (2016). Dis/ability Critical Race Studies (Dis. Crit): Theorizing at the intersections of race and dis/ability. In S. A. Annamma, D. J. Connor & B. A. Ferri (Eds. ), Dis. Crit: Disability Studies and Critical Race Theory in Education (pp. 9 – 32). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Berkhofer, R. F. (1978). The white man’s Indian. New York, NY: Random House. Gomez, L. E. (2007). Manifest destinies: The making of the Mexican American race. New York, NY: New York Press. Inda, J. X. (2006). Targeting immigrants: Government, technology, and ethics. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Meyer, M. C. , & Sherman, W. L. (1991). The course of Mexican History (4 th ed. ). New. York: Oxford University Press Ngai, M. M. (2003). The strange career of the illegal alien: Immigration restriction and deportation policy in the United States, 1921 – 1965. Law and History Review, 21(1), 69 – 107. PBS. org (n. d. ). James K. Polk: Message on War with Mexico, May 11, 1846. Archives of The West, (1806 – 1848). Retrieved February 7, 2017 from: http: //www. pbs. org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/two/mexdec. htm Pérez Huber, L. , & Solórzano, D. G. (2015). Visualizing everyday racism: Critical race theory, visual microaggressions, and the historical image of Mexican banditry. Qualitative Inquiry, 21(3), 223 – 238. Portes, A. , & Rumbaut, R. G. (1996). Immigrant America: A portrait (2 nd ed. ). Berkeley: University of California Press. Reimers, D. M. (1981). Post-World War II immigration to the United States: America’s latest newcomers. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 454, 1 – 12. Villenas , S. , & Deyle, D. (1999). Critical Race Theory and ethnographies challenging the stereotypes: Latino families, schooling, resilience and resistance. Curriculum Inquiry, 29(4), 413 – 445.

Contact Information: ▪ Cristina Santamaría Graff, Ph. D. ▪ Assistant Professor of Special Education ▪ School of Education, IUPUI ▪ Email: santamac@iupui. edu ▪ Phone: 317 -274 -6848 ▪ For Power. Point Presentation & Tables: https: //eduspirit. org/about/other-resources/

EXTRA INFORMATION

February 2017 ▪ Last month the Department of Homeland Security issued a sweeping set of orders that implement Trump's plan to increase immigration enforcement, placing the vast majority of the nation's 11 million undocumented immigrants at risk of deportation. ▪ The memos instruct all agents — including Customs and Border Protection and Immigration and Customs Enforcement — to identify, capture and quickly deport the undocumented immigrants they encounter. That includes immigrants who have been charged or convicted of any crime, as well as those who commit even minor traffic offenses. -Lorena Figueroa, El Paso Times

Indiana: Senate Committee passes bill to make sanctuary campuses illegal ▪ The new bill, if passed into law, would make state educational institutions count as governmental bodies and potentially limit ways colleges can implement the DACA [Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals] Act and other protections for undocumented immigrants. ” (Eman Mozaffar, Indiana Daily Student, 2/21/2017).