Essentials of Understanding Psychology 9 th Edition By
Essentials of Understanding Psychology 9 th Edition By Robert Feldman Power. Points by Kimberly Foreman Revised for 9 th Ed by Cathleen Hunt Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011 1
Chapter 9: Development 2 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
MODULE 27: Nature and Nurture and Prenatal Development • How do psychologists study the degree to which development is an interaction of hereditary and environmental factors? • What is the nature of development before birth? • What factors affect a child during the mother’s pregnancy? 3 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Developmental Psychology • Study of the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life – Nature-nurture issue • Developmental psychologists typically take an interactionist position. – Both nature and nurture interact to produce developmental outcomes. 4 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Characteristics Influenced Significantly by Genetic Factors 5 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Developmental Research Techniques • Cross-sectional Research – Compares people of different ages at the same point in time • Differences among groups of people • Limitation – Cohort Effects • Longitudinal Research – Traces the behavior of one or more participants as the participants age • Change in behavior over time 6 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Developmental Research Techniques • Sequential Research – Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by taking a number of different age groups and examining them at several points in time 7 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth • The Basics of Genetics – Chromosomes • Rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information • Genes – Smaller units through which genetic information is transmitted – Composed of sequences of DNA 8 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth • The Human Genome Project – Scientists mapped the specific location and sequence of every human gene • Gene therapy – Health-care providers inject genes to correct particular diseases directly into a patient’s bloodstream 9 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth • The Earliest Development – Germinal Period • Zygote – Fertilized egg – First two weeks – Embryonic Period • Embryo – Weeks 2 through 8 10 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth • The Earliest Development – Fetal Period • Fetus – Week 8 until birth • Age of viability – Point at which it can survive if born prematurely » About prenatal age 22 weeks » Sensitive periods (critical periods) – Preterm infants » Born before week 38 11 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth • Genetic Influences on the Fetus – – Phenylketonuria (PKU) Sickle-cell anemia Tay-Sachs disease Down Syndrome 12 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth • Prenatal Environmental Influences – Teratogens • • • Mother’s nutrition Mother’s illness Mother’s emotional state Mother’s use of drugs Alcohol – Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) – Fetal alcohol effects (FAE) • Nicotine use 13 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Environmental Factors in Prenatal Development 14 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
MODULE 28: Infancy and Childhood • What are the major competencies of newborns? • What are the milestones of physical and social development during childhood? • How does cognitive development proceed during childhood? 15 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Infancy and Childhood • Neonate – Vernix – Lanugo 16 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Extraordinary Newborn • Reflexes – Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli • • • Rooting reflex Sucking reflex Gag reflex Startle reflex Babinski reflex 17 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Movement: First Two Years 18 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Extraordinary Newborn • Development of the Senses: Taking in the World – Habituation • Decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus – Visual abilities grow rapidly after birth • Discriminate and produce facial expressions • Colors • 2 - and 3 -Dimensional Objects – Sound • Recognize mother’s voice at age 3 days 19 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood • Physical Development – During first year of life children typically triple birth weight – Height increases by about half 20 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood • Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World – Attachment • The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual – Konrad Lorenz » Imprinting 21 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood • Harry Harlow’s study on attachment – “Wire monkey versus cloth monkey” 22 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood • Assessing Attachment – Mary Ainsworth • Ainsworth strange situation – Securely attached – Avoidant – Ambivalent – Disorganized-disoriented 23 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood • The Father’s Role – Number of fathers who are primary caregivers for their children has grown significantly – Nature of attachment can be similar 24 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood • Social Relationships with Peers – Helps children interpret the meaning of others’ behavior and develop the capacity to respond appropriately – Helps children learn physical and emotional self-control 25 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood – The Consequences of Child Care Outside the Home • High-quality care centers can positively impact child • Low-quality child care provides little or no gain and may even hinder development 26 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood – Parenting Styles and Social Development • • Authoritarian Permissive Authoritative Uninvolved – Temperament • Basic, innate disposition – Resiliency • Ability to overcome high-risk situations 27 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood • Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development – Trust-versus-mistrust stage • Birth – 1½ years of age – Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage • 1½ – 3 years of age – Initiative-versus-guilt stage • 3 – 6 years of age – Industry-versus-inferiority stage • 6 – 12 years of age 28 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood • Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World – Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development • Sensorimotor stage – Birth to 2 years of age – Object permanence • Preoperational stage – 2 to 7 years of age – Egocentric thought – Principle of conservation 29 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood • Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World – Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development • Concrete operational stage – 7 to 12 years of age – Reversibility • Formal operational stage – 12 years of age to adulthood – Abstract, formal, and logical thinking 30 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development 31 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Conservation Tasks 32 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood • Information-Processing Approaches – The way in which people take in, use, and store information – Metacognition • An awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes 33 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood • Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development – Considering Culture – Cognitive development occurs as a consequence of social interactions in which children work with others to jointly solve problems • Zone of proximal development (ZPD) – Level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own » Scaffolding 34 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
MODULE 29: Adolescence: Becoming an Adult • What major physical, social, and cognitive transitions characterize adolescence? 35 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Adolescence • Developmental stage between childhood and adulthood. • A time of profound changes and, occasionally, turmoil. 36 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent • Puberty – Period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs • For girls it begins at about age 11 or 12 when menstruation starts • For boys it is marked by their first ejaculation, known as spermarche, usually around the age of 13 37 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong • Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development – Three-level sequence – Judgments, not moral behavior – Moral development in women 38 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World • Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development – The Search for Identity • Identity-versus-role-confusion stage – Identity • Intimacy-versus-isolation stage – Early adulthood – Focuses on developing close relationships with others 39 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World • Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development – The Search for Identity • Generativity-versus-stagnation stage – Middle adulthood – Ability to contribute to one’s family, community, work, and society, and to assist the development of the younger generation • Ego-integrity-versus-despair stage – Later adulthood until death – Sense of accomplishment 40 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World • Stormy Adolescence: Myth or Reality? – Research shows that adolescence is not a period fraught with stress and unhappiness as once thought, but nevertheless does have some strife • Adolescent egocentrism – State of self-absorption in which a teenager views the world from his own point of view • Personal fables – Belief that one’s experience is unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else 41 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World • Adolescent Suicide – Third leading cause of death for adolescents – Warning signs: School problems Signs of depression Self-destructive behavior Preoccupation with death Loss of appetite or excessive eating Putting affairs in order, giving away prized possessions Withdrawal from friends and peers Sleeping problems Explicit announcement of thoughts of suicide 42 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Module 30: Adulthood • What are the principal kinds of physical, social, and intellectual changes that occur in early and middle adulthood, and what are their causes? • How does the reality of late adulthood differ from the stereotypes about that period? • How can we adjust to death? 43 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Adulthood • Early Adulthood – Begins around age 20 and lasts until age 40 to 45 years • Emerging Adulthood – Period beginning in the late teen years and extends until mid 20 s 44 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Physical Development: The Peak of Health • For most people, early adulthood marks the peak of physical health – Around age 25, the body becomes slightly less efficient and more susceptible to disease • Menopause – Women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile • Hormone therapy (HT) is controversial 45 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Social Development: Working at Life • People typically launch themselves into careers, marriage, and families • Midlife transition – Period when people may begin to question their lives • Midlife crisis 46 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties • Changes in marriage and divorce trends have doubled the number of single-parent households in the United States over the last two decades • Economic and emotional consequences for the singleparent households 47 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties • Changing Roles of Men and Women: The Time of Their Lives – More women act simultaneously as wives, mothers, and wage earners • Women’s “Second Shift” – Additional work performed by women with a career and home responsibilities 48 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Later Years of Life: Growing Old • Physical Changes in Late Adulthood: The Aging Body – Genetic Preprogramming Theories of Aging • Suggest that human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction – Wear-and-Tear Theories of Aging • Suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply work less efficiently as people age 49 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Later Years of Life: Growing Old • Cognitive Changes: Thinking in Late Adulthood – Researching cognitive changes in late adulthood • IQ • Fluid intelligence • Crystallized intelligence 50 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Later Years of Life: Growing Old • Cognitive Changes: Thinking in Late Adulthood – Memory Changes in Late Adulthood: • Are Older Adults Forgetful? – Episodic memories – Senility – Alzheimer’s disease » Progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities 51 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Later Years of Life: Growing Old • The Social World of Late Adulthood: Old but Not Alone – Disengagement Theory of Aging • Aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels 52 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
The Later Years of Life: Growing Old • The Social World of Late Adulthood: Old but Not Alone – Activity Theory of Aging • Late adulthood should reflect a continuation, as much as possible, of the activities in which people participated during the earlier part of their lives – Life review 53 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
Adjusting to Death • Elisabeth Kübler-Ross’s Five Stages – – – Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance 54 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011
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