Essentials of Understanding Psychology 9 th Edition By

Essentials of Understanding Psychology 9 th Edition By Robert Feldman Power. Points by Kimberly Foreman Revised for 9 th Ed by Cathleen Hunt Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011 1

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology 2 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Module 1: Psychologists at Work • What is the science of psychology? • What are the major specialties in the field of psychology? • Where do psychologists work? 3 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Psychology • Scientific study of behavior and mental processes. 4 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Subfields of Psychology • Subfields are Psychology’s “Family Tree” • How to identify a subfield? – Look at the basic questions about behavior that they address. 5 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Major Subfields of Psychology 6 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Subfields of Psychology • What are the biological foundations of behavior? – Behavioral Neuroscience – Examines how the brain and the nervous system determine behavior. 7 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Subfields of Psychology • How Do People – – – Sense Perceive Learn About Think About …the World? Experimental Psychology • Includes the subspecialty Cognitive Psychology 8 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Subfields of Psychology • What Are the Sources of Change and Stability in Behavior Across the Life Span? • Developmental Psychology – Studies how people grow and change from conception through death. • Personality Psychology – Focuses on the consistency in people’s behavior over time and the traits that differ from person to person. Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011 9

The Subfields of Psychology • How Do Psychological Factors Affect Physical and Mental Health? • Health Psychology – Explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease. • Clinical Psychology – Deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders. • Counseling Psychology – Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career-adjustment 10 problems. Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Subfields of Psychology • How Do Our Social Networks Affect Behavior? • Social Psychology – Study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. • Cross-Cultural Psychology – Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups. 11 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Newer Subfields of Psychology • Expanding Psychology’s Frontiers • Evolutionary Psychology – Considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. • Behavioral Genetics – Seeks to understand how we inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences the display of those traits. • Clinical Neuropsychology – Unites neuroscience and clinical psychology. – Focuses on origin of psychological disorders in biofactors. Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011 12

Where do Psychologists work? 13 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Psychologists: A Portrait • ~300, 000 psychologists work in the United States. • In the United States women outnumber men in the field. – Today ~¾ of doctorates are given to women. • Vast majority of psychologists in the United States are white. – 6% are members of racial minority groups. 14 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Education of a Psychologist • Ph. D. – Doctor of philosophy • Psy. D. – Doctor of psychology • M. A. or M. S. – Master’s degree • B. A. or B. S. – Bachelor’s degree 15 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Careers for Psychology Majors • Most psychology majors take a job in this field after graduation. • Most common areas of employment: – Social Services – Education – Federal, state, and local government 16 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Careers for Psychology Majors 17 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

MODULE 2: A Science Evolves • The Past, the Present, and the Future – – What are the origins of psychology? What are the major approaches in contemporary psychology? What are psychology’s key issues and controversies? What is the future of psychology likely to hold? 18 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Major Milestones in Psychology 19 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Roots of Psychology • Functionalism – William James – Concentrated on what the mind does and how behavior functions • Stream of consciousness 20 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Roots of Psychology • Gestalt Psychology – Hermann Ebbinghaus & Max Wertheimer – Emphasized how perception is organized • “The whole is different from the sum of its parts” 21 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Women in Psychology: Founding Mothers • Margaret Floy Washburn (1871– 1939) – First woman to receive a doctorate in psychology – Animal Behavior • Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886– 1939) – One of first to focus on child development and women’s issues • Mary Calkins (1863– 1930) – First female president of APA – Studied memory Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011 22

Women in Psychology: Founding Mothers • Karen Horney (1885– 1952) – Focused on the social and cultural factors behind personality • June Etta Downey (1875– 1932) – First woman to head a psychology department at a state university 23 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Women in Psychology: Founding Mothers • Anna Freud (1895– 1982) – Notable contributions to the treatment of abnormal behavior • Mamie Phipps Clark (1917– 1983) – Pioneered work on how children of color grew to recognize racial differences 24 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Today’s Perspectives 25 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Neuroscience Perspective • “Blood, Sweat, and Fears” • Neuroscience Perspective – Considers how people and nonhumans function biologically. – Includes study of heredity, evolution, and behavioral neuroscience. 26 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Behavioral Perspective • “Observing the Outer Person” • Behavioral Perspective – John B. Watson – B. F. Skinner – Focuses on observable behavior that can be measured objectively 27 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Cognitive Perspective • “Identifying the Roots of Understanding” • Cognitive Perspective – Focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world • Information processing 28 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Humanistic Perspective: • “The Unique Qualities of the Human Species” • Humanistic Perspective – – Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow Emphasis is on “free will” not “determinism” Individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior. 29 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Key Issues and 5 Major Perspectives 30 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Psychology’s Future • Psychology will become increasingly specialized and new perspectives will evolve. • Neuroscientific approaches will likely influence other branches of psychology. • Influence on issues of public interest will grow. • Issues of diversity will become more important to psychologists providing services and doing research. Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011 31

MODULE 3: Research in Psychology • What is the scientific method? • What role do theories and hypotheses play in psychological research? • What research methods do psychologists use? • How do psychologists establish cause-and-effect relationships using experiments? Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011 32

The Scientific Method • Approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest. 33 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Scientific Method • Four main steps – 1. Identifying questions of interest – 2. Formulating an explanation – 3. Carrying out research designed to support or refute the explanation – 4. Communicating the findings 34 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Scientific Method 35 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions • Hypothesis – Prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested. – Stems from theories. • Operational Definition – Translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed. 36 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Psychological Research • Research – Systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge. 37 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Descriptive Research • Archival Research – Existing data, such as: • census documents • college records • newspaper clippings – … are examined to test a hypothesis. 38 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Descriptive Research • Survey Research – A sample of people chosen to represent a larger group of interest —population —is asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes. – Survey researchers strive for random sampling. 39 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Descriptive Research • The Case Study – An in-depth, intensive investigation of a single individual or a small group. • Often includes psychological testing 40 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Descriptive Research • Correlational Studies • Two sets of variables are examined to determine whether they are associated, or “correlated. ” – Variables • Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way – Correlation coefficient • Positive • Negative 41 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

TV Viewing and Aggression 42 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Experimental Research • Experiment • Investigating relationship between two or more variables by: – 1. changing one variable in a controlled situation – 2. observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation • Experimental manipulation 43 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Experimental Research • Experimental Groups and Control Groups – Treatment • Manipulation implemented by the experimenter – Experimental group • Receives a treatment – Control group • Receives no treatment • Rules out other reasons for change 44 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Experimental Research • Independent and Dependent Variables – Independent (IV) • The condition that is manipulated by an experimenter – Dependent (DV) • The variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variable 45 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Experimental Research • Random Assignment of Participants – To make the experiment a valid test of the hypothesis • Random Assignment to Condition – Participants are assigned to different experimental groups or “conditions” on the basis of chance 46 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Experiment Example 47 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Experimental Research • Significant Outcome – Using statistical analysis, researchers can determine whether a numeric difference is a real difference or is due merely to chance • Replication – Repeating experiment • Meta-analysis 48 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Research Method: Advantages & Shortcomings 49 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

MODULE 4: Research Challenges • Exploring the Process – What major issues confront psychologists conducting research? 50 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Ethics of Research • Protecting Participants • APA Ethical Guidelines: – – Protect from physical and mental harm Participants’ right to privacy regarding behavior Assurance that participation is voluntary Informing participants about procedures 51 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

The Ethics of Research • Informed Consent – Participants sign a document affirming that they know: • • • the basic outlines of the study what their participation will involve the risks the experiment may hold that their participation is purely voluntary they may terminate the study at any time 52 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Should Animals Be Used in Research? • Procedures that subject animals to distress are permitted only when an alternative procedure is unavailable and when the research is justified by its prospective value 53 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Threats to Experimental Validity • Attempt to Avoid Experimental Bias • Experimental Bias – Factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment • Experimenter expectations • Participant expectations – Placebo 54 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Thinking Critically about Research • What is valid research? – What was the purpose of the research? – How well was the study conducted? – Are the results presented fairly? 55 Copyright Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc. 2011