Essentials of Psychology by Saul Kassin CHAPTER 9
Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin CHAPTER 9: Human Development © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Human Development • • • Basic Developmental Questions Prenatal Development The Remarkable Newborn The Infant and Growing Child Adolescence Adulthood and Old Age Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Basic Developmental Questions • Developmental Psychology – The study of how people grow, mature, and change over the life span • Two Major Ways to Conduct Research – Cross-sectional Studies • People of different ages are tested and compared – Longitudinal Studies • The same people are tested at different times to track changes related to age Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Basic Developmental Questions Developmental Research Strategies Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Prenatal Development The Growing Fetus • Zygote – A fertilized egg that undergoes a two-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo • Embryo – The developing human organism, from two weeks to two months after fertilization • Fetus – The developing human organism, from nine weeks after fertilization to birth Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Prenatal Development The Growing Fetus Fertilization 30 Hours 6 weeks 4 months Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Prenatal Development The Growing Fetus • Teratogens – Toxic substances that can harm the embryo or fetus during prenatal development • Malnutrition • Viral Infections – AIDS, Rubella (German measles), and others • X-rays, lead, and other environmental hazards • Drugs – Alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome), Cigarettes, Cocaine, Aspirin, Marijuana, and other drugs both licit and illicit Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Remarkable Newborn • Research Techniques – Habituation • The tendency for attention to a stimulus to wane over time (often used to determine whether an infant has “learned” a stimulus – Recovery • Following habituation to one stimulus, the tendency for a second stimulus to arouse new interest (often used to test whether infants can discriminate between stimuli) Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Remarkable Newborn Reflexes • Grasping Reflex – In infants, an automatic tendency to grasp an object that stimulates the palm • Rooting Reflex – In response to contact on the cheek, an infant’s tendency to turn toward the stimulus and open its mouth Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Remarkable Newborn Sensory Capacities Visual Preferences in Newborns • Infants spend more time looking at patterns than solids. • Infants spend the most time looking at a drawing of a human face. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Remarkable Newborn Sensitivity to Number Can Infants Add and Subtract? • Infants saw a sequence of events that illustrated addition or subtraction. • Then they saw a correct or incorrect outcome (2 -1=2, for example). • The infant looked longer at outcomes that were incorrect. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Infant and the Growing Child Biological Development • Physical Growth – At birth, infants’ brains weigh about one pound and contain all the neurons that they will need during their entire lives. – During the first year, axons grow longer, dendrites increase, and new synaptic connections are formed. – During childhood, the brain removes unnecessary connections and myelination, which speeds neural communication, begins and continues to early adolescence. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory • Schemas – In Piaget’s theory, mental representations of the world that guide the processes of assimilation and accommodation – Assimilation • The process of incorporating and, if necessary, changing new information to fit existing schemas – Accommodation • The process of modifying existing schemas in response to new information Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive Development Changing Schemas of the Earth • From preschool through about the 5 th grade, children gradually assimilate and then accommodate their schemas to form an accurate representation of the earth’s shape. 5 th grade Preschool Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive Development • Piaget’s Stages of Development – Sensorimotor – Preoperational – Concrete Operational – Formal Operational – Each stage is qualitatively different from the others – Ages for stage transitions are approximate Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive Development Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive Development • Sensorimotor Stage – Object permanence: Develops at six to eight months and is an awareness that objects continue to exist after they disappear from view. – Separation anxiety: A fear reaction to the absence of the primary caregiver. • It is seen in all cultures. • It corresponds with the development of object permanence and the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive Development • Preoperational Stage – Egocentric • Self-centered, unable to adopt the perspective of another person – Inability to understand Conservation • The concept that physical properties of an object remain the same despite superficial changes in appearance Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive Development Tasks Used to Test Conservation • The ability to conserve marks the transition from the preoperational stage, to the concrete operational stage of cognitive development, when children become capable of logical reasoning. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive Development Speed of Information Processing • Response times decrease from 7 - 12 years of age – Consistent across several different types of tasks • This may be due to the biological maturation of the brain. – Increased myelination of axons which speeds up neural processing Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Infant and Growing Child Social Development The Parent-Child Relationship • Critical Period – A period of time during which an organism must be exposed to a certain stimulus for proper development to occur • Attachment – A deep emotional bond that an infant develops with its primary caretaker Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Infant and Growing Child Social Development Styles of Attachment • Strange Situation Test – A parent-infant “separation and reunion” procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a child’s attachment • Secure Attachment – The baby is secure when the parent is present, distressed by separation, and delighted by reunion. • Insecure Attachment – The baby clings to the parent, cries at separation, and reacts with anger or apathy to reunion. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
The Infant and Growing Child Social Development • The Day-Care Controversy – Quality childcare does not have harmful effects on children. – Higher quality day-care situations have plenty of space, have many supplies, and are staffed adequately to provide individual attention and stimulating activities. • Peer Relationships – Attachments outside the home become important to healthy social development. • Children who are rejected by their peers are at risk for later problems, such as drug abuse and poor adjustment to adult relationships. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adolescence • Adolescence – The period of life from puberty to adulthood, corresponding roughly to the ages of thirteen to twenty • Puberty – The onset of adolescence, as evidence by rapid growth, rising levels of sex hormones, and sexual maturity • Menarche – A girl’s first menstrual period Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adolescence Puberty Adolescent Growth Spurt • At about age 13 for girls, 16 for boys, there is a final maturational growth spurt in height. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adolescence Puberty The Timing of Puberty • Girls who mature earlier than their peers are usually less satisfied with their size, weight, and figure and may develop eating disorders. • However, boys who mature earlier than their peers have a generally positive body image during early adolescence. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adolescence Cognitive Development Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning • Moral Reasoning – The way people think and try to solve moral dilemmas. • Preconventional Level – Morality judged in terms of reward and punishment • Conventional Level – Morality judged in terms of social order and approval • Postconventional Level – Morality judged in terms of abstract principles, like equality and justice Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adolescence Cognitive Development Levels of Moral Reasoning • Most 7 -10 year olds are reasoning at the preconventional level. • Most 13 -16 year olds are reasoning at the conventional level. • Few participants show reasoning indicative of the postconventional level. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adolescence Cognitive Development • Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory – Cultural Bias • Some cultural differences are not reflected in this theory. – Gender Bias • Empirical support for this claim is weak. – Connection between moral reasoning and moral behavior is often indirect. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adolescence Social and Personal Development Adolescent Disengagement • The proportion of time spent with the family decreases almost 3% per year. • This decline was not found for time spent alone with parents. • Identity Crisis – An adolescent’s struggle to establish a personal identity, or self-concept Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adolescence Social and Personal Development Patterns of Adolescent “Transformation”Within the Family • Adolescents in the 7 th and 8 th grades felt worse while with their family. • Boys feel better after 8 th grade and feel the best in 9 th and 10 th grades. • Girls continue to feel bad until the 11 th grade. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adolescence Social and Personal Development • Peer Influences – Adolescent relationships are intimate. – Adolescents begin to discover friendships with other-sex peers. – Conformity rises steadily with age, peaks in ninth grade, and then declines. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adolescence Social and Personal Development • Sexuality – Whether teens act on sexual impulses depends on social factors. – Adolescents who engage in sexual behavior with others are not necessarily informed about health risks and contraception. – Adolescent sexual behavior may be due to attempts to be more like an adult or as way to rebel. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adulthood and Old Age Physical Changes in Adulthood • Life Span – The maximum age possible for members of a given species. • Life Expectancy – The number of years that an average member of a species is expected to live. • Menopause – The end of menstruation and fertility. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adulthood and Old Age Aging and Intellectual Functions • Memory and Forgetting – Cognitive abilities do not inevitably decline. – Some elderly may show declines on free-recall tasks, however declines on tests of recognition memory are less likely. – Memory declines may be due to impairments in sensory acuity and a slowing of neuronal processing. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adulthood and Old Age Aging and Intellectual Functions • Alzheimer’s Disease The Alzheimer’s Problem – A progressive brain disorder that strikes older people, causing memory loss and other symptoms. • In the U. S. , the projected number of Alzheimer’s patients is 14 million in 2050. • The cost is at least $100 billion per year. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adulthood and Old Age Aging and Intellectual Functions Age Trends in Measures of Intelligence • Fluid intelligence, which includes inductive reasoning and spatial ability, declines steadily throughout middle and late adulthood. • Crystallized intelligence, which includes verbal ability and numeric ability, remains stable into the 70’s. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adulthood and Old Age Social and Personal Development • Erikson’s Stages of Development – Intimacy vs. Isolation • Young adulthood (20 -40 years) – Generativity vs. Stagnation • Middle adulthood (40 -65 years) – Integrity vs. Despair • Late adulthood (65 and older) Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adulthood and Old Age Social and Personal Development Self-Esteem • Self-esteem is highest in childhood. • It drops sharply during adolescence. • It increases gradually during adulthood, peaks in the sixties, and declines in old age. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Adulthood and Old Age Dying and Death • Elisabeth Kübler-Ross proposed five stages in approaching death: – – – Denial (“It must be a mistake. ”) Anger (“It isn’t fair!”) Bargaining (“Let me live longer and I’ll be a better person. ”) Depression (“ I’ve lost everything important to me. ”) Acceptance (“What has to be, has to be. ”) • Not everyone follows this sequence through the stages and all people do not experience all stages. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
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