Essentials of Psychology by Saul Kassin CHAPTER 7

Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin CHAPTER 7: Thought, Language, and Intelligence © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Thought, Language, and Intelligence • • • Concepts Solving Problems Making Judgments Language The Relationship Between Thought and Language Intelligence Tests The Nature of Intelligence The Great Debates Education Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Concepts • Concept – A mental grouping of persons, ideas, events, or objects that share common properties • Prototype – A “typical” member of a category, one that has most of the defining features of that category Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Concepts A Semantic Network Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Solving Problems Representing the Problem • Image – A mental representation of visual information • Mental Models – Intuitive theories about the way things work Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Solving Problems Representing the Problem Mental-Rotation Tasks • • • Imagine a Capital letter T. Rotate it 90 degrees to the right. Put a triangle to the left of the figure, pointing to the right. Rotate the figure 90 degrees to the right. Which of these figures is the correct one? Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Solving Problems Generating Solutions • Trial and Error – A problem-solving strategy in which several solutions are attempted until one is found that works • Algorithm – A problem-solving procedure that is guaranteed to produce a solution • Heuristic – A mental shortcut that allows one to make judgments that are quick but often in error Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Solving Problems Generating Solutions Tower of Hanoi Problem • The task is to move three rings from peg A to peg C. • Only the top ring on a peg may be moved. • A larger ring cannot be placed above a smaller one. Hint: It helps to break the task into subgoals. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Solving Problems Generating Solutions The Cheap-Necklace Problem • Make a necklace for 15¢ or less. • It costs 2¢ to open a link; 3¢ to close a link. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Solving Problems Generating Solutions The Nine-Dot Problem • Connect all 9 dots. • Use only 4 lines. • Do not lift your pencil from the page after you begin drawing. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Solving Problems Generating Solutions Duncker's Candle Problem • Using only the objects shown in the picture, mount the candle to the wall. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Solving Problems Solution to the Cheap-Necklace Problem • Using all four chains is not necessary to solve the problem. • Solving this problem may require an incubation period followed by insight into the solution. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Solving Problems Solution to the Nine-Dot Problem • People do not realize that they their lines can be drawn outside the box. • Failure to solve this problem is often due to representation failure. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Solving Problems Solution to Duncker's Candle Problem • The thumbtack box can also be used as a shelf. • Failure to solve this problem is often due to functional fixedness. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Solving Problems “Blind Spots” in Problem Solving • Functional Fixedness – Tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions • Confirmation Bias – Inclination to search only for evidence that will verify one’s beliefs Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Making Judgments The Rules of Formal Logic • Syllogistic Reasoning – Syllogism • A logical problem in which the goal is to determine the validity of a conclusion given two or more premises • Conditional Reasoning – This is another common type of problem derived from formal logic and takes the form of “if-then” statements. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Making Judgments Biases in Judgment • Representativeness Heuristic – Tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event in terms of how typical it seems • Availability Heuristic – Tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event in terms of how easily instances of it can be recalled • Anchoring Effect – The tendency to use the initial value as a reference point in making a new numerical estimate Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Solving Problems and Making Judgments Steps in Critical Thinking - The process of solving problems and making decisions through careful evaluation of evidence Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Language Characteristics of Human Language • Semanticity – The property of language that accounts for the communication of meaning – Phonemes • Basic, distinct sounds of a spoken language – Morphemes • The smallest meaningful units of a language – Phrase • A group of words that act as a unit to convey meaning – Sentence • An organized sequence of words Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Language Characteristics of Human Language • Generativity – The property of language that accounts for the capacity to use a limited number of words to produce an infinite variety of expressions – Syntax • Rules of grammar that govern the arrangement of words in a sentence • Displacement – The property of language that accounts for the capacity to communicate about matters that are not in the here-and-now Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Language Characteristics of Human Language • Emergence of Language – Developmental Sequence • Babbling – Spontaneous vocalizations of basic speech sounds which infants begin at about four months of age • Telegraphic Speech – Early short form of speech in which the child omits unnecessary words, e. g. , “More juice”. – Developmental Theories • Nature-Nurture Debate – Much evidence exists that humans are biologically prepared for language. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Can Apes Learn Language? • Many apes of several species have learned various different signing systems. • Is it language? • This debate continues. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Relationship Between Thought and Language The Linguistic-Relativity Hypothesis – The hypothesis that language determines, or at least influences, the way we think – This leads to a prediction that people of different cultures, who speak different languages, must think in different ways. • Evidence indicates that language influences but does not completely determine thought. – “Doublespeak” is an example of how language can influence thought. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Relationship Between Thought and Language Words that Distort Memory for Images • Participants were shown figures on the left, with different labels. • When asked to redraw the figures, the new drawings fit the labels they had been given. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Relationship Between Thought and Language Culture, Language, & Thinking • The Dani – aboriginal people of Papua New Guinea – have only two words for colors. – Mola (all colors on the left) and Mili (all colors on the right) • They can distinguish among the different colors, however. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Intelligence • The capacity to learn from experience and adapt successfully to one’s environment • • Intelligence Tests The Nature of Intelligence The Great Debates Education Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Intelligence Tests The Stanford-Binet • A new type of test, developed by Alfred Binet in 1904 to screen French school children for potential academic problems. • Translated into English and adapted for the U. S. by Lewis Terman of Stanford University. • Mental Age – The average of the children who achieve a certain level of performance Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Intelligence Tests The Stanford-Binet • Intelligence Quotient – Originally defined as the ratio of mental age to chronological age, it now represents a person’s performance relative to same-age peers. • Shifts the focus to the rate of development – Allows children of different ages to be compared. Mental Age IQ= ( Chronological Age ) x 100 Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Intelligence Tests The Wechsler Scales • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) – The most widely used IQ test for adults, it yields separate scores for verbal and performance subtests Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Intelligence Tests Group Aptitude Tests • Stanford-Binet, Wechsler, and other scales test one person at a time. – This is not practical for quick, large-scale assessment. • During World War I, the U. S. Army developed two tests that could be group-administered. – “Alpha” for those who could read English – “Beta” for all other recruits • Group tests are now common. – Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) – American College Test (ACT) – Graduate Record Examination (GRE) Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Accurate? • Standardization – The procedure by which existing norms are used to interpret an individual’s test score • Reliability – The extent to which a test yields consistent results over time or using alternate forms – Two types are test-retest and split-half • Validity – The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure – Two types are content and criterion Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Accurate? • Standardization – Involves administering a test to thousands of people similar to those for whom the test was intended. – And, determining average score and characteristics of distribution of scores The average score was set at 100 and test scores are distributed in a normal bell-shaped curve with about 68% of scores falling between 85 and 115. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Accurate? Distribution of Scores on the SAT Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Accurate? • Reliability – A reliable test measures a variable(s) consistently. – Unlike validity, reliability does not address what is being measured. – Forms of reliability • Test-Retest – The extent to which a test yields consistent results when readministered at a later time • Split half – The degree to which alternate forms of a test yield similar results Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Accurate? • Validity – A valid test measures or predicts what it claims to measure or predict. – Types of Validity • Content validity – The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure • Criterion-related validity – The extent to which a test can predict a concurrent or future outcome Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Biased? Raven's “Culture-Fair” Test • Person is given a series of matrices and must complete each by selecting the correct symbol for the available choices. • The test is designed to be free of cultural bias. Sample Item Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Nature of Intelligence General Intelligence (g) – A broad intellectual-ability factor used to explain why performances on different intelligence-test items are often correlated • Factor Analysis – A statistical technique used to identify clusters of test items that correlate with one another. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Nature of Intelligence General Intelligence (g) Spearman’s Theory of Intelligence • Spearman theorized that individuals differ in general intelligence (g). • To explain why correlations among tests are not perfect, he theorized that each test score is also affected by the specific ability being tested (S). Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Nature of Intelligence Gardner's “Frames of Mind” • Multiple Intelligences – Gardner’s theory that there are seven types of intelligence: • Linguistic intelligence, Logical-mathematical intelligence, Spatial intelligence, Musical intelligence, Bodilykinesthetic intelligence, Interpersonal intelligence, and Intrapersonal intelligence • Gardner based his theory on evidence such as the existence of prodigies, prodigies people who are highly precocious in a specific domain of endeavor, endeavor and idiot savants, savants people who are mentally retarded but are extraordinarily talented in some ways Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Nature of Intelligence Gardner's “Frames of Mind” Types of Multiple Intelligences • Linguistic Intelligence – Verbal ability, consists of the skills involved in speaking, listening, reading, and writing • Logical-mathematical Intelligence – Abstract reasoning ability, consists of the skills necessary for solving puzzles and programming computers • Spatial Intelligence – Visual ability, consists of the skills involved in orienting oneself in space and navigation Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Nature of Intelligence Gardner's “Frames of Mind” Types of Multiple Intelligences • Musical Intelligence – Ability to appreciate the tonal qualities of sound, consists of the skills necessary to compose and play an instrument • Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence – Ability to control gross and fine body movements • Interpersonal Intelligence – Ability to understand others, social skills • Intrapersonal Intelligence – Ability to understand oneself, self-insight Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Nature of Intelligence Sternberg's Triarchic Theory • Triarchic Theory of Intelligence – Sternberg’s theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Great Debates Nature and Nurture Nature's Influence on IQ Scores • The greater the genetic similarity between two individuals, the more similar are their IQ scores. – This suggests a genetic component to intelligence. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Great Debates Nature and Nurture's Influence on IQ Scores • All other things being equal, two individuals raised together will have more similar IQ scores than those raised apart. – This is evidence that the environment shapes intelligence in important ways. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Great Debates Nature and Nurture How Environments Magnify Genetic Influences • Some theorize that genes predispose children toward varying success rates in school. • Early academic experiences guide the children into different environments. • These environments can multiply the influence of genes. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Great Debates Nature and Nurture Head Start Programs – A preschool intellectual-enrichment program for children born of poor families – Serves hundreds of thousands of families across the U. S. each year – Alumni score about 10 points higher on IQ tests, are more confident, are less likely to repeat grades, and are more likely to graduate from high school compared to their peers. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Great Debates The Racial Gap Explaining Group Differences • Within a group with all treated exactly the same, differences may reflect genetics. • When one group differs from another, the differences between the groups may reflect environmental differences. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Great Debates The Racial Gap Education: The Great Equalizer • Cognitive test scores from grades 8 – 16 • Initial gap between black and white students was narrowed significantly by the end of college • Education has a vital equalizing role Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Great Debates Cultural Influences • Asian American students get higher grades and SAT math scores, are more likely to graduate from college, and are more likely to win various scholarships compared to their peers. • However, research shows that their tests scores are about average. • Americans, relative to those in Asian countries, may set lower standards and place less value on educational pursuits. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Great Debates Gender Differences Verbal, Mathematical, and Spatial Abilities • Girls outscore boys on verbal abilities and reading. • Girls are better at arithmetic in grade school, but boys surpass them by junior high school. • Males outperform females on spatial tasks. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Education Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – The idea that a person’s expectation can lead to its own fulfillment (as in the effect of teacher expectations on student performance) Three-Step Model • Teachers with low expectations of some students may settle for lower performance from these students. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Education Stereotype Threat • If students are told a test is important, they may respond by performing either better or worse, according to group stereotypes. – African American students are aware of negative stereotypes – Vulnerability to stereotype Stereotype Threat Effect undermines performance on Test Performance Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - © 2004 Prentice Hall Publishing