Essentials of Abnormal Psychology Eighth Edition Chapter 2
Essentials of Abnormal Psychology Eighth Edition Chapter 2 An Integrative Approach to Psychopathology © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Outline • • One-dimensional vs. Multidimensional Models Genetic Contributions Neuroscientific Contributions Behavioral and Cognitive Science Emotions Cultural and Social Factors Lifespan Development © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Focus Questions • • • What are the features of unidimensional and multidimensional models of psychopathology? How do genes interact with environment to influence behavior? How do different brain regions and neurotransmitters influence psychopathology? How to behavioral, emotional and cognitive science influence explanations of mental illness? How do cultural factors affect psychopathology? © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
One-Dimensional vs. Multidimensional Models, Part 1 • One-dimensional models – – Explain behavior in terms of a single cause Could mean a paradigm, school, or conceptual approach Tend to ignore information from other areas Example: Explaining obsessive-compulsive disorder as the result of family history alone © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
One-Dimensional vs. Multidimensional Models, Part 2 • Multidimensional models – – Interdisciplinary, eclectic, and integrative “System” of influences that cause and maintain suffering Draw upon information from several sources Abnormal behavior results from multiple influences © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Multidimensional Models of Abnormal Behavior • Major Influences – – – Biological Behavioral Emotional Social & cultural Developmental Environmental © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
EXAMPLE of Multidimensional Influences Contributing to a Blood-Injection-Injury Phobia © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Genetic Contributions to Psychopathology • • Phenotype vs. genotype Nature of genes – – • Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—the double helix 23 pairs of chromosomes Dominant vs. recessive genes Development and behavior is often polygenetic Genetic contribution to psychopathology – Less than 50% © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Chromosomes © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
The Interaction of Genetic and Environmental Effects, Part 1 • Eric Kandel and gene-environment interactions – The genetic structure of cells actually changes as a result of learning experiences § • E. g. , an inactive gene may become active because of environmental influences The diathesis-stress model – Examples: Blood-injury-injection phobia, alcoholism © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
The Interaction of Genetic and Environmental Effects, Part 2 FIGURE 2. 2 In the diathesis–stress model, the greater the underlying vulnerability, the less stress is needed to trigger a disorder. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
The Interaction of Genetic and Environmental Effects, Part 3 FIGURE 2. 3 Interaction of genes and early environment in producing adult major depression. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
The Interaction of Genetic and Environmental Effects, Part 4 • Reciprocal gene-environment model – Outcomes are a result of interactions between genetic vulnerabilities and experience – Examples: depression, impulsivity • Epigenetics and the nongenomic inheritance of behavior – Genes are not the whole story – Environmental influences (e. g. , parenting style) may override genetics © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
The Interaction of Genetic and Environmental Effects, Part 5 FIGURE 2. 4 Gene-environment correlation model. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience Contributions to Psychopathology, Part 1 • The field of neuroscience – The role of the nervous system in disease and behavior • Branches of human nervous system – The central nervous system (CNS) § Brain and spinal cord – The peripheral nervous system (PNS) § Somatic and autonomic branches © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience Contributions to Psychopathology, Part 2 FIGURE 2. 5 Divisions of the nervous system. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience and the Central Nervous System, Part 1 • The neuron – Soma—cell body – Dendrites—branches that receive messages from other neurons – Axon—trunk of neuron that sends messages to other neurons – Axon terminals—buds at end of axon from which chemical messages are sent – Synapses—small gaps that separate neurons © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience and the Central Nervous System, Part 2 • Neurons operate electrically, but communicate chemically – Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience and the Central Nervous System, Part 3 FIGURE 2. 6 The transmission of information from one neuron to another. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Overview: Neuroscience and Brain Structure • Two main parts – Brainstem § Contains hindbrain, midbrain, thalamus, and hypothalamus (between brainstem and forebrain) – Forebrain § Contains limbic system, basal ganglia, cerebral cortex (larges part of the brain, the wrinkled outer structure) © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 1 • Hindbrain—regulates automatic processes – Medulla—regulates heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration – Pons—regulates sleep stages – Cerebellum—involves in physical coordination • Midbrain – Coordinates movement with sensory input – Contains parts of the reticular activating system (RAS) © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 2 • Limbic system helps regulate our emotional experiences and expressions, and ability to learn and to control our impulses. – – Hippocampus Cingulate gyrus Septum Amygdala © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 3 • Forebrain – Most sensory, emotional, and cognitive processing – Cerebral cortex contains two specialized hemispheres (left and right) § Each hemisphere has four lobes with specialized processes © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 4 • Lobes of the cerebral cortex – – Frontal—thinking and reasoning abilities, memory Parietal—touch recognition Occipital—integrates visual input Temporal—recognition of sights and sounds, long-term memory storage © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 5 FIGURE 2. 7 a Three divisions of the brain. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 6 FIGURE 2. 7 b Major structures of the brain. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 7 FIGURE 2. 7 c The limbic system. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 8 FIGURE 2. 7 d The basal ganglia. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience and Brain Structure, Part 9 FIGURE 2. 8 Some major subdivisions of the human cerebral cortex and a few of their primary functions. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience: Peripheral Nervous System, Part 1 • Somatic branch of PNS – Controls voluntary muscles and movement • Autonomic branch of the PNS – – Involuntary processes Sympathetic and parasympathetic branches Regulates cardiovascular system & body temperature Also regulates the endocrine system and aids in digestion © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience: Peripheral Nervous System, Part 2 • FIGURE 2. 9 The sympathetic nervous system (red lines) and parasympathetic nervous system (blue lines). © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience: Endocrine Systems, Part 1 • The endocrine system – Regulates release of hormones • The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenalcortical axis (HPA axis) – Integration of endocrine and nervous system function © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience: Endocrine Systems, Part 2 FIGURE 2. 10 Location of some major endocrine glands. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neurotransmitters • Functions of Neurotransmitters – “Chemical messengers”—transmit messages between brain cells – Other chemical substances in the brain § § Agonists Inverse agonists Antagonists Most drugs are either agonistic or antagonistic © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Neuroscience: Functions of Main Types of Neurotransmitters • Main types of neurotransmitters – – – Serotonin (5 -HT) Glutamate Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) Norepinephrine Dopamine © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Serotonin • • Also known as 5 -hydroxytryptamine (5 -HT) Influences information processing, behavior, mood, and thoughts Dysregulated serotonin may contribute to depression Very low serotonin linked to instability and impulsivity © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Serotonin Pathways in the Brain FIGURE 2. 11 Major serotonin pathways in the brain. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
How Neurotransmitters and Serotonin Drugs Work FIGURE 2. 12 Manipulating serotonin in the brain. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Norepinephrine • • Also called noradrenaline Involved in alarm responses and basic bodily processes (e. g. , breathing) © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Norepinephrine Pathways FIGURE 2. 13 Major norepinephrine pathways in the human brain. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Dopamine • • • Implicates in depression and ADHD Link between excessive dopamine and schizophrenia Link between reduced dopamine and Parkinson’s disease © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Dopamine Pathways FIGURE 2. 14 Two major dopamine pathways. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Implications of Neuroscience for Psychopathology, Part 1 • Relations between brain and abnormal behavior – Example: Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) § • Man developed OCD after part of his frontal cortex was damaged during brain surgery Psychosocial influences – Can change brain structure and function © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Implications of Neuroscience for Psychopathology, Part 2 • • Treatments for mental health problems may now focus on the brain regions found to be relevant for these problems Psychotherapy – Also can change brain structure and function – Medications and psychotherapy are often used together © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
The Contributions of Behavioral and Cognitive Science, Part 1 • Conditioning and cognitive processes – Early research on classical conditioning: Simple associations are learned between two things that tend to occur together – Later research indicated that it is not that simple—this sort of learning is influenced by higher-order cognitive processes © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
The Contributions of Behavioral and Cognitive Science, Part 2 © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
The Contributions of Behavioral and Cognitive Science, Part 3 • Other types of learning – Respondent and operant learning – Learned helplessness – Social learning § Modeling and observational learning – Prepared learning © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Cognitive Science and the Unconscious • There may be a dissociation between behavior and consciousness – Implicit memory § Acting on the basis of experiences that are not recalled – Blind sight § Some people who are blind can still sense objects that would be in their visual field even if they do not experience sight – Some experimental tests reveal implicit processing © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
The Role of Emotion in Psychopathology, Part 1 • The nature of emotion – To elicit or evoke action – Action tendency different from affect and mood – Intimately tied with several forms of psychopathology © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
The Role of Emotion in Psychopathology, Part 2 • Components of emotion – Behavior, physiology, and cognition – Example of fear: Anxious thoughts, elevated heart rate, tendency to flee • Harmful side of emotional dysregulation – Emotions like anger, hostility, sadness, and anxiety play a key role in psychopathology – Some emotions (e. g. , chronic hostile arousal) and emotion suppression can have negative health consequences © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
The Role of Emotion in Psychopathology, Part 3 FIGURE 2. 16 Emotion has three important and overlapping components: behavior, cognition, and physiology. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Cultural, Social, and Interpersonal Factors in Psychopathology • Cultural factors – Influence the form and expression of behavior • Gender effects – Men and women may differ in emotional experience and expression • Social support effects on health and behavior – Frequency and quality important – Related to mortality, disease, and psychopathology © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Social Stigma of Psychopathology • • Culturally, socially, and interpersonally situated Problems with social stigma – May limit the degree to which people express mental health problems § E. g. , concealing feelings of depression > unable to receive support from friends – May discourage treatment seeking © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Life-Span and Developmental Influences over Psychopathology • Life-span developmental perspective – Addresses developmental changes – Influences and constrains what is normal and abnormal • The principle of equifinality – From developmental psychopathology – Several paths to a given outcome – Paths vary by developmental stage © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Summary of the Multidimensional Perspective of Psychopathology, Part 1 • Multiple causation – The rule, not the exception • Take a broad, comprehensive, systemic perspective – Biological and neuroscientific – Cognitive and emotional – Social, cultural, and developmental factors © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Summary of the Multidimensional Perspective of Psychopathology, Part 2 • A multidimensional, comprehensive approach puts us in the best position to: – Understand the causes of psychopathology – Alleviate and prevent psychopathology © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
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