ERT 209 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER FOR BIOPROCESS

ERT 209 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER FOR BIOPROCESS ENGINEERING EVAPORATOR

Purpose of Evaporation n n n To concentrate solution by removing the vapor from a boiling liquid solution In the majority of cases, evaporation refers to the removal of water from an aqueous solution. Example: concentration of aqueous solutions of sugar, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, glycerol, glue, milk, and orange juice. In these cases the concentrated solution is the desired product and the evaporated water is normally discarded. In a few cases, water, which contains a small amount of minerals, is evaporated to give a solids-free water to be used as boiler feed, for special chemical processes. Evaporation processes to evaporate seawater to provide drinking water have been developed and used.

Processing Factors 1. Concentration in the liquid - low viscosity: high mass transfer coefficient - high viscosity: low mass transfer coefficient 2. Solubility - solubility increases with temperature - crystallization may occur when a hot concentrated solution is cooled to room temperature 3. Temperature sensitivity of materials - food and biological materials may be temperature sensitive and degrade at higher temperature or after prolonged heating.

4. Foaming or frothing - food solution such as skim milk and some fatty-acid solution form a foam or froth during boiling. 5. Pressure and temperature - high operating pressure: high boiling point 6. Scale deposition and materials of construction - Some solutions deposit solid materials called scale on the heating surfaces. - results in the overall heat-transfer coefficient decreases and evaporator must be cleaned.

TYPES OF EVAPORATION EQUIPMENT 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Open kettle or pan Horizontal-tube natural circulation evaporator Vertical-type natural circulation evaporator Long-tube vertical-type evaporator Falling-film-type evaporator Forced-circulation-type evaporator Agitated-film evaporator Open-pan solar evaporator

FIGURE 8. 2 -1. Different types of evaporators: (a) horizontal-tube type, (b) vertical-tube type,

FIGURE 8. 2 -1. Different types of evaporators: (c) long-tube vertical type, (d) forced-circulation type.

Methods of Operation of Evaporators 1. 2. 3. 4. Single-effect evaporators Forward-feed multiple-effect evaporators Backward-feed multiple-effect evaporators Parallel-feed multiple-effect evaporators

1. Single-effect evaporators FIGURE 8. 2 -2. Simplified diagram of single-effect evaporator

n n n n The feed enters at TF Saturated steam at TS enters the heat- exchange section. Condensed steam leaves as condensate or drips. The solution in the evaporator is assumed to be completely mixed Hence, the concentrated product and the solution in the evaporator have the same composition. Temperature T 1 is the boiling point of the solution. The temperature of the vapor is also T 1, since it is in equilibrium with the boiling solution. The pressure is P 1, which is the vapor pressure of the solution at T 1.

n n n If the solution to be evaporated is assumed to be dilute and like water, then 1 kg of steam condensing will evaporate approximately 1 kg of vapor (if the feed entering has TF near the boiling point) The concept of an overall heat-transfer coefficient is used in the calculation of the rate of heat transfer in an evaporator The general equation can be written Where: q is the rate of heat transfer in W (btu/h), U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient in W/m 2. K (btu/h ft. °F), A is the heat-transfer area in m 2 (ft 2), TS is the temperature of the condensing steam in K (°F), T 1 is the boiling point of the liquid in K (°F).

n Single-effect evaporators are often used when the required capacity of operation is relatively small and/or the cost of steam is relatively cheap compared to the evaporator cost. n However, for large-capacity operation, using more than one effect will markedly reduce steam costs.

2. Forward-feed multiple-effect evaporators n n A single-effect evaporator as shown in Fig. 8. 2 -2 is wasteful of energy. The latent heat of the vapor leaving is not used but is discarded. Much of this latent heat, however, can be recovered and reused by employing a multiple - effect evaporator. A simplified diagram of a forward-feed triple-effect evaporation system is shown in Fig. 8. 2 -3.

FIGURE 8. 2 -3. Simplified diagram of forward -feed triple-effect evaporator.

n n n n If the feed to the first effect is near the boiling point at the pressure in the first effect, 1 kg of steam will evaporate almost 1 kg of water. The first effect operates at a temperature that is high enough that the evaporated water serves as the heating medium to the second effect. Here, again, almost another kg of water is evaporated, which can then be used as the heating medium to the third effect. As a very rough approximation, almost 3 kg of water will be evaporated for 1 kg of steam in a three-effect evaporator. Hence, the steam economy, which is kg vapor evaporated/kg steam used, is increased. This also holds approximately for more than three effects. However, the increased steam economy of a multiple-effect evaporator is gained at the expense of the original first cost of these evaporators.

n n n In forward-feed operation as shown in Fig. 8. 2 -3, the fresh feed is added to the first effect and flows to the next in the same direction as the vapor flow. This method of operation is used when the feed is hot or when the final concentrated product might be damaged at high temperatures. The boiling temperatures decrease from effect to effect. This means that if the first effect is at P 1 = 1 atm abs pressure, the last effect wilt be under vacuum at a pressure P 3.

3. Backward-feed multiple-effect evaporators n In the backward-feed operation shown in Fig. 8. 2 -4 for a triple-effect evaporator, the fresh feed enters the last and coldest effect and continues on until the concentrated product leaves the first effect. FIGURE 8. 2 -4. Simplified diagram af backward-feed triple-effect evaporator.

n n This method of reverse feed is advantageous when the fresh feed is cold, since a smaller amount of liquid must be heated to the higher temperatures in the second and first effects. However, liquid pumps must be used in each effect, since the flow is from low to high pressure. This reverse-feed method is also used when the concentrated product is highly viscous. The high temperatures in the early effects reduce the viscosity and give reasonable heat-transfer coefficients.

4. Parallel-feed multiple-effect evaporators n Parallel-feed in multiple-effect evaporators involves the adding of fresh feed and withdrawal of concentrated product from each effect. n The vapor from each effect is still used to heat the next effect. n This method of operation is mainly used when the feed is almost saturated and solid crystals are the product, as in the evaporation of brine to make salt.

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient in Evaporators The overall heat-transfer coefficient U in an evaporator is composed of: 1. 2. 3. The steam-side condensing coefficient, which has a value of about 5700 W/m 2. K (1000 btu/h ft 2. °F); - The steam-side condensing coefficient outside the tubes can be estimated using Eqs. (4. 8 -20) through (4. 8 -26). The metal wall, which has a high thermal conductivity and usually a negligible resistance; The resistance of the scale on the liquid side; and the liquid film coefficient, which is usually inside the tubes.

Calculation Methods for Single-Effect Evaporator 1. 2. 3. 4. Heat and Material Balances for Evaporators Effects of Processing Variables on Evaporator Operation Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions Enthalpy - Concentration Charts of Solutions

Heat and Material Balances for Evaporators n The basic equation for solving for the capacity of a single-effect evaporator is Eq. (8. 2 -1), which can be written as where ΔT (K, o. F) is the difference in temperature between the condensing steam and the boiling liquid in the evaporator. n In order to solve Eq. (8. 4 -1) the value of q in W (btu/h) must be determined by making a heat and material balance on the evaporator shown in Fig. 8. 4 -1.

FIGURE 8. 4 -1 Heat and mass balance for single-effect evaporator

n The feed to the evaporator is F kg/h (lbm/h) having a solids content of x. F mass fraction, temperature TF, and enthalpy h. F J/kg (btu/lbm). n Coming out as a liquid is the concentrated liquid L kg/h (lbm/h) having a solids content of x. L, temperature T 1, and enthalpy h. L. n The vapor V kg/h (lbm/h) is given off as pure solvent having a solids content of yv = 0, temperature T 1, and enthalpy Hv. n Saturated steam entering is S kg/h (lbm/h) and has a temperature of TS and enthalpy of HS. n The condensed steam leaving of S kg/h is assumed usually to be at TS, the saturation temperature, with an enthalpy of h. S. n This means that the steam gives off only its latent heat, λ, where: λ = H S – h. S (8. 4 -2)

n Since the vapor V is in equilibrium with the liquid L, the temperatures of vapor and liquid are the same. n Also, the pressure P 1 is the saturation vapor pressure of the liquid of composition x. L at its boiling point T 1. (This assumes no boilingpoint rise. ) n For the material balance, since we are at steady state, the rate of mass in = rate of mass out. Then, for a total balance, F=L+V n (8. 4 -3) For a balance on the solute (solids) alone, F x. F = L x. L (8. 4 -4)

n For the heat balance, since the total heat entering = total heat leaving, heat in feed + heat in steam = heat in concentrated liquid + heat in vapor + heat in condensed steam (8. 4 -5) n This assumes no heat lost by radiation or convection. Substituting into Eq. (8. 4 -5), Substituting Eq. (8. 4 -2) into (8. 4 -6),

n The heat q transferred in the evaporator is then n In Eq. (8. 4 -7) the latent heat λ of steam at the saturation temperature TS can be obtained from the steam tables in Appendix A. 2. n However, the enthalpies of the feed and products are often not available; these enthalpy concentration data are available for only a few substances in solution.

Hence, some approximations are made in order to make a heat balance. These are as follows: 1. It can be demonstrated as an approximation that the latent heat of evaporation of 1 kg mass of the water from an aqueous solution can be obtained from the steam tables using the temperature of the boiling solution T 1 (exposed surface temperature) rather than the equilibrium temperature for pure water at P 1. 2. If the heat capacities cp. F of the liquid feed and cp. L of the product are known, they can be used to calculate the enthalpies.

EXAMPLE 8. 4 -1. Heat-Transfer Area in Single-Effect Evaporator A continuous single-effect evaporator concentrates 9072 kg/h of a 1. 0 wt % salt solution entering at 311. 0 K (37. 8°C) to a final concentration of 1. 5 wt %. The vapor space of the evaporator is at 101. 325 k. Pa (1. 0 atm abs) and the steam supplied is saturated at 143. 3 k. Pa. The overall coefficient (U = 1704 W/m 2. K. Calculate the amounts of vapor and liquid product and the heat-transfer area required. Assume that, since it is dilute, the solution has the same boiling point as water. F, L, V = ? x. F , x. L , = ? P 1 , T 1 , = ? P F , T F , h. F = ? TS , HS = ? HV = ?

Solution: n The flow diagram is the same as in Fig. 8. 4 -1. For the material balance, substituting into Eq. (8. 4 -3), F=L+V (8. 4 -3) 9072 = L + V n Substituting into Eq. (8. 4 -4) and solving, F x. F = L x. L 9072(0. 01) = L(0. 015) L = 6048 kg/h of liquid Substituting into Eq. (8. 4 -3) and solving, V = 3024 kg/h of vapor (8. 4 -4)

n Assume cp. F = 4. 14 k. J/kg. K Boiling point of dilute solution is assumed to be that of water at 101. 32 k. Pa, T 1 = 373. 2 K (1000 C) as datum temperature. Latent heat of water Hv at 373. 2 K (from steam tables in Appendix A. 2) is 2257 k. J/kg. Latent heat of the steam λ at 143. 3 k. Pa (saturation temp. , TS = 383. 2 K) is 2230 k. J/kg Enthalpy of the feed can be calculated from: n T 1 = 373. 2 K; h. L = 0 ; substitute into Eq. (8. 4 -7) gives n n 9072(4. 14)(311. 0 - 373. 2) + S(2230) = 6048(0) + 3024(2257) S = 4108 kg steam/h

The heat q transferred through the heating surface area A is, from Eq. (8. 4 -8), q=S(λ) (8. 4 -8) q = (4108)(2230)(l 000/3600) = 2 544 000 W Substituting into Eq. (8. 4 -1), where ΔT = TS - T 1, q = 2 544 000 = UA ΔT = 1704(A)(383. 2 - 373. 2) Solving, A = 149. 3 m 2

Effects of Processing Variables on Evaporator Operation 1. Effect of feed temperature. n n The inlet temperature of the feed has a large effect on the operation of the evaporator. If feed enter the evaporator at 311. 0 K - cold as compared to the boiling temperature of 373. 2 K. About 1/4 of the steam used for heating is used to heat the cold feed to the boiling point. Hence, only about 3/4 of the steam is left for vaporization of the feed.

2. Effect of pressure. n n n n In Example 8. 4 -1 a pressure of 101. 32 k. Pa abs was used in the vapor space of the evaporator. This set the boiling point of the solution at 373. 2 K and gave ΔT for use in Eq. (8. 4 -1) of 383. 2 - 373. 2, or 10 K. In many cases a larger ΔT is desirable, since, as ΔT increases, the heating-surface area A and cost of the evaporator decrease. To reduce the pressure below 101. 32 k. Pa (to be under vacuum), a condenser and vacuum pump can be used. For example, if the pressure were reduced to 41. 4 k. Pa, the boiling point of water would be 349. 9 K The new ΔT would be 383. 2 - 349. 9 = 33. 3 K. A large decrease in heating-surface area would be obtained.

3. Effect of steam pressure. n n n Using higher-pressure saturated steam increases ΔT, which decreases the size and cost of the evaporator. However, high-pressure steam is more costly as well as often being more valuable as a source of power elsewhere. Hence, overall economic balances are really needed to determine the optimum steam pressures.

Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions n n n In the majority of cases in evaporation, the solutions are not dilute solutions such as those considered in Example 8. 4 -1. In most cases, thermal properties of the solution being evaporated may differ considerably from those of water. The concentrations of the solutions are high enough that the heat capacity and boiling point are quite different from those for water. For strong solutions of dissolved solutes the boiling-point rise due to the solutes in the solution usually cannot be predicted. However, a useful empirical law known as Duhring’s rule can be applied. According to this rule, a straight line is obtained if the boiling point of a solution in °C or °F is plotted against the boiling point of pure water at the same pressure for

FIGURE 8. 4 -2. Duhring lines for aqueous solutions of sodium hydroxide.

EXAMPLE 8. 4 -2 Use of Dühring Chart for Boiling-Point Rise As an example of use of the chart, the pressure in an evaporator is given as 25. 6 k. Pa (3. 72 psia) and a solution of 30% Na. OH is being boiled. Determine the boiling temperature of the Na. OH solution and the boiling-point rise BPR of the solution over that of water at the same pressure.

Solution: From the steam tables in Appendix A. 2, the boiling point of water at 25. 6 k. Pa is 65. 6 °C. From Fig. 8. 4 -2 for 65. 6 °C (150 °F) and 30% Na. OH, the boiling point of the Na. OH solution is 79. 5 °C (175 °F). The boiling-point rise is 79. 5 - 65. 6 = 13. 9 °C (25°F).

Enthalpy - Concentration Charts of Solutions n n n If the heat of solution of the aqueous solution being concentrated in the evaporator is large, neglecting it could cause errors in the heat balances. Should consider the heat-of-solution phenomenon. If pellets of Na. OH are dissolved in a given amount of water, it is found that a considerable temperature rise occurs; that is, heat is evolved, called heat of solution.

FIGURE 8. 4 -3. Enthalpy concentration chart for the system Na. OH water

EXAMPLE 8. 4 -3 Evaporation of an Na. OH Solution An evaporator is used to concentrate 4536 kg/h (10 000 lbm/h) of a 20% solution of Na. OH in water entering at 60 °C (140 °F) to a product of 50% solids. The pressure of the saturated steam used is 172. 4 k. Pa (25 psia) and the pressure in the vapor space of the evaporator is 11. 7 k. Pa (1. 7 psia). The overall heat-transfer coefficient is 1560 W/m 2. K (275 btu/h ft 2. °F). Calculate the steam used, the steam economy in kg vaporized/kg steam used, and the heating surface area in m 2.

Solution: The process flow diagram and nomenclature are the same as in Fig. 8. 4 -1. F = 4536 kg/h x. F = 0. 20 wt fraction, TF = 60 °C, P 1 = 11. 7 k. Pa, Steam pressure = 172. 4 k. Pa x. L = 0. 50 wt fraction. For the overall material balance, substituting into Eq. (8. 4 -3), F = 4536 = L + V (8. 4 -3) Substituting into Eq. (8. 4 -4) and solving (8. 4 -3) and (8. 4 -4) F x. F = L x. L 4536 (0. 20) = L (0. 50) L = 1814 kg/h V = 2722 kg/h

n n To determine the boiling point T 1 of the 50% concentrated solution, we first obtain the boiling point of pure water at 11. 7 k. Pa from the steam tables, Appendix A. 2, as 48. 9 C (120 F). From the Duhring chart, Fig. 8. 4 -2, for a boiling point of water of 48. 9 o. C and 50% Na. OH, the boiling point of the solution is T = 89. 5 o. C (193 1 o. F). Hence, boiling-point rise = T 1 - 48. 9 = 89. 5 - 48. 9 = 40. 6 o. C (73 o. F) From the enthalpy - concentration chart (Fig. 8. 4 -3), for 20% Na. OH at 60°C (140°F), hf = 214 k. J/kg (92 btu/lbm). For 50% Na. OH at 89. 5 C (193 F), h. L 505 k. J/kg (217 btu/lbm).

For the superheated vapor V at 89. 5°C (193 °F) and 11. 7 k. Pa [superheated 40. 6°C (73°F) since the boiling point of water is 48. 9 °C (120 °F) at 11. 7 k. Pa], from the steam tables, HV = 2660 k. J/kg (1147 btu/lbm). An alternative method for calculating the H is first to obtain the enthalpy of saturated vapor at 48. 9 °C (120 °F) and 11. 7 k. Pa of 2590 k. J/kg (1113. 5 btu/lbm). Then, using a heat capacity of 1. 884 k. J/kg K for superheated steam with the superheat of (89. 5 - 48. 9)°C = (89. 5 - 48. 9) K, HV = 2590 + 1. 884(89. 5 - 48. 9) = 2667 k. J/kg

For the saturated steam at 172. 4 k. Pa, the saturation temperature from the steam tables is 115. 6 °C (240 °F) and the latent heat is λ = 2214 k. J/kg (952 btu/lbm). Substituting into Eq. (8. 4 -7) and solving for S, Substituting into Eq. (8. 4 -8),

Substituting into Eq. (8. 4 -1) and solving, 2002(1000) = 1560(A)(115. 6 - 89. 5) Hence, A = 49. 2 m 2 Also, steam economy = 2722/3255 = 0. 836.

Evaporation of Biological Materials n n n Biological material such as pharmaceuticals, milk, citrus juice and vegetable extracts are usually heat-sensitive. Often contain fine particles of suspended matter in solution. Problems due to bacteria growth: equipment must be designed for easy cleaning. Degradation of biological material is a function of the temperature and length of time. To keep temperature low, evaporation must be done under vacuum, which reduces the boiling point of the solution. To keep the time of contact low, equipment must provide for low holdup time (contact time) for the material being evaporated.

Typical types of equipment used for biological materials: 1. Long-tube vertical evaporator: condensed milk 2. Falling film evaporator: fruit juices 3. Agitated-film evaporator: rubber latex, gelatin, antibiotics, fruit juices 4. Heat-pump cycle evaporator: fruit juices, milk, pharmaceuticals