Environmental Laws Alyn Smith Clean Water Act CWA

Environmental Laws Alyn Smith

Clean Water Act - CWA �Established in 1972 �Establishes basic structure for the regulation of discharged pollutants into water supplies. �Made it unlawful to discharge any pollutant from a point source into navigable waters, unless a permit was obtained.

Clean Air Act - CAA �Put into effect in 1970 �Comprehensive federal law that regulates air emissions from both stationary and mobile sources. �Authorizes the EPA to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species - CITES �Established in 1975 �Only treaty that ensures international trade in plants and animals does not threaten their survival �Requires participants to regularly submit reports on how they are implementing the Convention

Endangered Species Act - ESA �Est. 1973 �Provides a program for the conservation of threatened and endangered species and their respective habitats �Requires federal agencies, in consultation with the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and/or the NOAA Fisheries Service, to ensure that their actions are not likely to threaten species of any listed species.

National Environmental Policy Act - NEPA �Est. 1969 �Establishes a broad national framework for protecting the environment. �Assures that all branches of government give proper consideration to the environment before undertaking any major federal action that involves impacting the environment.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act - RCRA �Est. 1976 �Gives the EPA the authority to control hazardous waste from its beginning to its end. �Set framework for hazardous waste management

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund) - CERCLA �Est. 1980 �Provides a federal “superfund” to clean up uncontrolled hazardous-waste sites as well as accidents, spills, and other emergency releases of pollutants/contaminants into the environment

The Water Cycle By: Justine Cathers • This cycle is also known as the Hydrological • Cycle(H 2 O Cycle). The Cycle consists of 5 different stages. 1. Evaporation 2. Condensation 3. Precipitation 4. Infiltration 5. Runoff

Water cycle continued…. . �The water cycle involves the exchange of heat, which eventually leads to temperature change. �The water cycle purifies water as well as replenishes the land with freshwater. �The water cycle is completely dependent on the Sun, to heat the water in oceans and rivers, to cause evaporation to turn water vapor into the air.

Continued…. �Air currents move the water vapor around the globe, causing them to collide with cloud particles, which become to heavy and creates precipitation. �The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water throughout the hydrosphere. �The water cycle affects the climate due to the fact that it is powered by solar energy, causing the reduction of evaporative cooling, which helps in reducing the greenhouse affect.

Continue…. . �Runoff is responsible for almost all of the transport of eroded sediment and phosphorus from land to water bodies. �Precipitation occurs mostly in rain, but it also includes snow, hail, fog, and sleet.

Energy Production with Fossil Fuels Sierra Hedrick APES 3 rd Pd.

1. All types of fossil fuels are formed from decayed plant and animal matter. They are all unrenewable. 2. The three types of fossil fuels (in order of abundance from most to least) are: Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas. 3. The largest reserves of coal in the world are located in the U. S. , Russia, China, and India, the largest reserve of oil in the Persian Gulf, and those of natural gas in Kazakhstan, Persian Gulf, and Russia.

4. Coal is extracted through deep or surface mining, while oil and natural gas are welled and pumped. 5. As of the year 2000, the United States used oil the most, followed by natural gas, with coal a close third. 6. Because of extraction, coal causes the most habitat destruction, followed by oil, then natural gas. 7. Natural gas is being considered the “fuel of the future” when compared to coal and oil.

8. All three types of fossil fuels produce carbon dioxide (CO 2), which contributes to global warming. Coal burning releases the most CO 2 (per unit of energy produced), followed by oil, and natural gas. 9. Coal produces the worst pollution because of acid deposition, global warming, and mercury emissions. Oil comes in second because of the possibility of spills. The only pollution caused by natural gas is CO 2 emissions.

10. We can reduce the amount of pollution by burning and using less fuels, and by using catalytic converters to reduce NOx emissions. Most industrial “solutions” to pollution are expensive, and only transfer the pollution problem away from the air, but do not solve anything.

Toxicology � Fact Number 1 � The Branch of Science concerned with the nature, effects, and detection of poisons.

Fact Number 2! On of the first known examples of unwanted toxicity was in the roman times where may people got lead poisoning from the lead plumbing and lead dishware. This is the start of understanding that chemicals can be used to do things to people unexpected. . .

Fact Number 3 There are three laws to toxicology. The first is that “the dose makes the poison. ” This statement says that all things can be poisonous with enough of it. That way too much of something can cause you to get poisoned. The First law was derived from a German physicist in the fifteenth century. His name was Paracelsus and he created the oldest law of toxicology.

Fact Number 5 • The second law of toxicology states that biological actions of each chemical are specific to each chemical. Yes it is simple, and seems very logical, but all this is saying is that lead will act like lead and alcohol will act like alcohol. They may share common ailments, or even act very similar, but lead poisoning will never be alcohol poisoning.

Fact Number 6 The founder of the second law of toxicology was Ambroise Paré, a sixteenth-century French surgeon who recognized that toxic agents have different effects dependent upon their inherent nature. Understanding the specific action of chemicals, known as hazard identification, depends upon recognizing the structural determinants of the activity of chemicals, and the biological niches in which chemicals interact. Very subtle changes in chemical structure can make an enormous difference in biological effects.

Fact Number 7 The third and last law of toxicology is that humans are animals. Once again this seems simple, but this law is important, because if we take the full understanding that people are animals, then we will realize that chemicals react similarly in our bodies, whether we die from snake venom or not, is not 100% relevant, it is the reason why we don't that matters.

Fact Number 8 There are two types of dose relationships that people in the toxicology world recognize. The first is that a drop of hydrochloric acid can burn a hole in your skin, but if you take that same drop and put it in a bathtub full of water it will dilute it so much it won't do anything to cause actual physical harm.

Fact Number 9 The second dose relationship is that the chemical will mutate. This can be described as a linear one-hit relationship between the dose of a mutational agent and the likelihood that the mutation will occur. The theoretical risk for any one molecule causing a mutation is infinitely small—there about 1 trillion molecules of benzene, a known cause of leukemia, in every breath taken in an average American city, yet very few people develop leukemia.

Fact Number 10 A major challenge in modern toxicology is to prevent unwanted effects of otherwise valuable chemicals, including therapeutic agents. Understanding chemical mutagenesis and carcinogenesis has permitted the development of bacterial mutagenesis assays, such as the Ames test.

Works Cited Goldstein, Bernard D. . "Toxicology. " Encyclopedia of Public Health. 2002. Encyclopedia. com. 27 Mar. 2013 <http: //www. encyclopedia. com>.

The Kyoto Protocol By: Thomas Melton • Is an international agreement among the United Nations to lower emissions. • Japan adopted the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, but didn’t enforce it until 2005.

The Montreal Protocol � An international treaty designed to phase out ozone depleting materials. � This protocol is widely accepted and expects the ozone layer to recover by 2050.

The Marine Mammal Protection Act �Protects all marine mammals in the U. S. ? The only acceptations are if you get a government waiver, are conducting scientific research, or your native to Alaska.

The Rio Conferrence 2012 �Aimed at reconciling the economic and environmental goals of our communities. � The first conference of its kind was held in Rio in 1992, and they established the climate change convention, which lead to the Kyoto Protocol.

The Cairo Conference � An international conference on population and development. � It focused mainly on human rights, reaching demographic targets, and sustainable living.

1. Environmental ethics is a part of environmental philosophy that extends the boundaries of ethics from just humans to include the nonhuman world. 2. The inspiration for environmental ethics was the first Earth Day in 1970. 3. In 1979 when Eugene C. Hargrove founded the journal Environmental Ethics. The name of the journal became the name of the field. Environmental Ethics

4. In the 1980 s a second movement, ecofeminism, developed. Karen Warren is the key philosopher, although the ecofeminism movement involves many thinkers from other fields. It was then followed by a third, social ecology, based on the views of Murray Bookchin. Environmental Ethics

5. The 1990 s began with the establishment of the International Society for Environmental Ethics, which was founded largely through the efforts of Laura Westar and Holmes Rolston, III. It now has members throughout the world. In 1997 a second international association was created, the International Association for Environmental Philosophy, with an emphasis on environmental phenomenology. It publishes a journal called Environmental Philosophy. Environmental Ethics

Environmental History 1. Environmental history is the study of human interaction with the natural world over time. In contrast to other historical disciplines, it emphasizes the active role nature plays in influencing human affairs. 2. Environmental history emerged in the United States out of the environmental movement of the 1960 s and 1970 s, and much of its force still stems from present-day global environmental concerns.

Environmental History 3. Environmental history can be divided into three components: natural itself and its change over time, how humans use nature, and the way attitudes, beliefs, and values influence interaction with nature. 4. Many of themes of environmental history includes what challenges global sustainability: population, climate change, deforestation, species extinction, and urban development.

Environmental History 5. The American Society for Environmental History was founded in 1975 and the first institute devoted specifically to environmental history in Europe was established in 1991, based at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland.

Solid Waste Management FACTS! Brianna Valentine 3 rd

v 95% of our solid waste is disposed of in almost-filled landfills. v Every year about 45, 000 tons of plastic waste is dumped into the world’s oceans. v Packaging accounts for 50% of all paper produced in North America v Paper products make-up over 405 by weight, slightly higher by volume of this country’s municipal solid waste, by far the largest contributor. v Every year about 900, 000 trees are cut down to provide raw materials for America paper and pulp mills. DID YOU KNO W?

v The United States generates approximately 208 million tons of municipal v v solid waste a year, that’s 4. 3 pounds person per day. Every Sunday, more than 500, 000 trees are used to produce the 88% of newspapers that are never recycled. If we put all of the solid waste collected in the U. S. in a line of average garbage trucks, that line of trucks could cross the country, extending from NYC to LA more than 100 times. Waste is the source of almost 4% of the world’s greenhouse gases. *Mostly in the form of methane from rotting food. Methane is a green house gas 21 times more potent than CO 2. Only 3 ways to get rid of waste : Bury it, Burn it, or Recycle it! DID YOU KNO W?

The beginning(2006): Mining…

Mine Reclamation �Process of restoring land that has been mined to a natural or economically usable purpose. �Mining reclamation occurs once mining is complete, but the preparation of reclamation occurs far prior to the mine’s beginning. �Surface Mining and Reclamation Act, officially brought to light the legal importance of reclaiming abandoned mines, and the regulation of active mines in 1977.

The Process �The FRA, or the Forestry Reclamation Approach, is the leading force in mining reclamation, because of their supporting of forested land. �The FRA establishes the guidelines for achieving successful reforestation on mined lands. �The steps of reclamation are mainly focused on establishing a suitable environment to plant and grow trees, to reclaim the land as environmentally sound; sustainable over a long period of time.

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act � Prior to the year of establishment, there were no federal laws regulating surface mining of the coal mining industry. � Reinforcement from state to state was widely inconsistent, and usually ineffective, as they often lacked proper funding. � Under the SMCRA, guidelines are enforced in existing and future mines, and trust funds are created to finance reclamation attempts of abandoned mines. � SMCRA balances the need to protect the environment from the effects of surface coal mining with the nation’s need for coal as an primary source of energy in most places.

… and Mine Reclamation The end(2008):

Human Population Growth Lyndsee Miniard

During the time period from 1950 to 2005, the world experienced the greatest population increase ever(2. 5 billion to 6. 5 billion). 2. Anthropologists believe the human species dates back about 3 million years and had about 10 million individuals. 3. By 1 AD, the population expanded to 300 million and grew at a moderate partly due to an increase in agriculture. 4. After the start of the Industrial Revolution(living standards rose and epidemics diminished), population had increased to 760 million in 1750 and reached 1 million by 1800. 1.

5. World population growth accelerated after World War II, when the population of developing countries increased rapidly. 6. After years of slow growth, the population exploded; a million people were added between 1960 and 1975 and another million between 1975 and 1987. 7. Throughout the 20 th century, each additional billion has been achieved in less time. We entered the 20 th century with 1. 6 billion and ended with 6. 1 billion. 8. The overall effects of the explosive population growth on living standards, resource use, and the environment will continue to change the world landscape long after we’re all gone.

9. The only time in human history that the population decreased was the Black Plague in the 15 th and 16 th centuries. 10. The human population continues to increase exponentially and is expected to reach 9 billion by the year 2050.

Agriculture Production and Pesticides- by: Delaney Miniard � 1. Agricultural production is one of the largest and most important economic activities in the world, especially in countries that have low income, because the GDP growth is impacted. � 2. One of the largest sectors in agriculture production is grain, coffee and, tea. � 3. Farmers, on average, spend 4. 1 billion dollars every year on pesticides. They justify this by claiming they earn 3% more on the crops, due to the effectiveness of the pesticides. � 4. The word pesticide means a branch of agrochemicals that is used to protect crops from certain bacteria, insects, and other potentially damaging organisms

Agriculture Production and Pesticides � 5. Many countries have banned certain pesticides, such as DDT and chlordane, because of their dangerous and disruptive qualities. � 6. Pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers are all categorized in the agrochemical field. These items have been in wide use since the 1940 s. � 7. Through today’s requirements of pesticides having to be deemed safe for humans, the environment has been overlooked and is still being harmed by the effects of the pesticides.

Agriculture Production and Pesticides � 8. Modern application equipment (including backpack sprayers) allow a fairly safe and efficient application of pesticides of all kinds. � 9. Originally, the purpose for pesticide laws and regulations was to protect consumers from outrageous claims about the quality of the products. The purpose has since shifted to focus on protecting the people and environment. � 10. The Safe Drinking Water Act and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act have been implemented to protect the groundwater and surrounding environment from pollution courtesy of pesticides.

Endangered Species-Ten Things To Know Abigail Smith

Define “Species” and “Endangered” �A “species” is composed of any individuals that resemble each other and may interbreed. �An “Endangered species” is considered to be close to extinction and may in fact disappear from the planet. � Technically, there is a category of “extinct in the wild”

Different Classifications �There are six different classifications of endangered species (eight if you count “data deficient” and “extinct”). � Extinct in the Wild � Critically Endangered � Vulnerable � Near Threatened � Least Concerned

�Any at the rank of “vulnerable” to “critically endangered” are considered to be at risk of extinction. � This Is about one third of the earth’s recognized species. • Habitat loss and fragmentation, hunting and poaching, invasive species, climate change, pollution, disease, collection and pet trade are all causes of extinction and also all causes of endangered species becoming endangered.

Endangered Species �Endangered species are being protected in a myriad of ways. � Habitat preservation and restoration � Ex-situ conservation (captive breeding) � Anti-poaching measures � Wildlife corridors � Laws and policies

Endangered Species �There are currently more endangered amphibians than any other group (1900 species) �Turtles are among the world’s most endangered vertebrates, with more than half the turtle species facing extinction.

Endangered Species �Many consider the Javan Rhino to be the most endangered animal. There are currently less than 50 remaining in the wild. �The Abingdon Island tortoise is the rarest reptile in the world. Sadly only a single male of this species, ‘Lonesome George’, remains alive today.

Ten things to know about soil and soil tests By Tanner Carroll

Soil �Soil color can revile info on soil content, drainage, and fertility. �Soil is made of several materials such as minerals and dad matter and decayed. �Healthy soil is 45% minerals 25% water 25% air and 5% organic material. �One ounce of soil contains 5000 -7000 species of Bacteria

Soil continued �Takes 5 centuries to form one inch of topsoil

Soil tests �The tests are for levels of elements such as phosphorous. �The test also verify the ph value. �The test can be used to guess the amount of fertilizer to use. �To start a test samples must be take 3 months before. �Each soil test such represent on soil or area. �

Plate Tectonics & the Rock Cycle 10 Things to Know � Plate tectonics is the movement of the Earth’s crust through convection currents that occur in the mantle. � The rock cycle is a continuous process by which rocks are created � Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling of molten rocks. � Basalt which is an igneous rock makes up the bulk of oceanic is formed at divergent plate boundaries the role of sea floor spreading and consequently, volcanism. � Volcanic igneous rocks are formed from molten rock that cooled quickly on or near the earth’s surface.

Plate Tectonics & the Rock Cycle 10 Things to Know � Sedimentary rocks are formed when areas are uplifted which occurs when areas of the crust move up due to plate tectonic movement, which allows rock to weather or erode. � More subsidence means there is more room for sediments to deposit and this for sedimentary rocks to form. � The rate of plate motions is directly related to rate of metamorphic rock production. Metamorphic rocks formed at areas of compression are formed at convergent plate boundaries. � Elements that make rocks are never created or destroyed although they can be redistributed transforming on rock element to another.

S T C N A A F E C 10 O E H T T U O B A By : Lauren Prichard

1. Water Pressure 2. Water Amount The ocean obtains an �Some scientists have incredible water made a research about it pressure. This point is and speculate that 50 considered as the million billion tons or 50 deepest spot in this quadrillion tons of water ocean. The dimension is for about eighty for are available in the every square inch. As a ocean comparison, you can �The ocean covers 71% of think of a man who earth’s surface and tries to hold fifty jumbo jet planes. contains 97% of the planet’s water.

3. Salt. The ocean is 3 -3. 4% salt. If this particle is eliminated from the water in the ocean, it can form 166 m of thickness in the surface of the planet. In comparison, it is just like thickness of the four stories of skyscrapers. 4. Great Barrier Reef The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest reef system. The Great Barrier Reef is composed of over 2, 900 individual reef The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space The Great Barrier Reef has over 5. Melted Ice 900 islands stretching for over The water in the ocean will rise for 2, 600 kilometers. about 66 meter or 200 feet if the entire ice found in the world melted. If we made a comparison from the 10, 000 years ago, you need to know that the level of the ocean now is 110 meter higher.

6. Volcanic Activity 7. Plant Life Importance The scientists state that the volcanic Ocean plants produce almost half of the oxygen we breathe. activity in the earth Ocean plants provide shelter usually is found in and protection for much of the ocean. The South ocean animal life. Pacific Ocean is 8. Job Opportunities regarded as the Fisheries support 170 largest one. It is million jobs. Oceans estimated that the 10. Harmful Affects carry 90 per cent of world sea floor contains trade. Marine and coastal 1, 333 active volcanoes. Plastic waste kills up to 1 million sea tourism, aquaculture and 9. Gold The worlds oceans contain nearly 20 million tons of gold. birds, 100, 000 sea mammals and countless fish each year. Plastic remains in our ecosystem for years harming thousands of sea creatures everyday. other uses of marine environments (excluding fisheries) provide livelihoods for millions more people.

Lakes, streams, rivers, wetland. By: Michayla Evans

Rivers and streams �River and stream load is where solid matter and particles are carried. �This has three types: 1. )Suspended load- Load is carried on top. 2. )Dissolved load- Middle level load. 3. )Bed load- Load on the bottom of the river. � Rivers and streams have four areas: 1. )Source zone- High gradient. 2. )recharge zone- Medium gradient. 3. )Floodplain zone- Slow gradient. 4. )River Delta- Mixture of salt and fresh water and is nutrient rich.

Lakes �Lakes have three main layers: 1. )Epilimnion- Top layer. 2. )Thermocline- Temperature changing level. 3. )Hypolimnion- The bottom layer. � There are three types of lakes: 1. )Oligotrophic- Poorly nourished and usually old lakes. 2. )Mesotrophic- Medium nourishment. 3. )Eutorophic- Very nourished. � Since plants need nourishment to live the more clear plant free lakes are Oligotrophic.

Wetlands �Wetlands are covered with water for most of the year like swamps, marshes, and mangrove forests. �They are very important because they act as a buffer against hurricanes, erosion control, water storage, and they filter out toxins. �Watersheds feed from wetlands. These watersheds feed rivers. �Also wetlands act as a habitat to many species such as plants, mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish, and invertebrates. These species can find the food they need and they also have the ideal climate there.

Weathering and Erosion Caci Gibson

What creates earth’s unusual and beautiful topographical features? � Weathering and Erosion work in unison, as parts of the Rock Cycle, to create earth’s rock formations. � Weathering – the mechanical and chemical hammering that breaks down and sculpts rocks � Erosion – transports rock fragments and sand away, eventually into the ocean

Natural Processes � Natural processes in the environment, like the Water Cycle, weather, and the growing of plants, can all change the earth’s surface. � Water can crack rocks by trickling into cracks and crevices and freezing, later washing the debris away. � Temperature cycles cause rocks and clay to expand, shrink, and eventually crumble. � Wind and waves can chip away at ocean cliffs and polish rocks smooth. � The movement of animals, the invasiveness of plant roots, and the loss of plant life for food can all cause rocks to crack and rocks to travel.

Natural Processes, cont. �Acids mixed with rainwater eat away at rocks. �Glaciers push slowly down hill under the force of gravity, carving out a path, and eventually melting and dumping tons of soil and rock into rivers. �Rivers dump millions of tons of eroded sediment into the ocean each year. �Without these processes, rock debris and soil would pile up and cover the land.

Weathering is split into two processes: • mechanical weathering - the physical breakdown of an object • chemical weathering - the breakdown of an object into particles of a different mineral composition

Landslides �Erosion is usually a long, slow process. �However, it can occasionally be dramatic and fast acting. �Landslides are an extreme example of this: they quickly move sediment down a slope and deposit it at the bottom.

Air Pollution 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Air pollution occurs when the air contains gases, dust, fumes or odor in amounts which could be harmful to the health or comfort of humans and animals or which could cause damage to plants and materials. (EPA) Air pollution is responsible for the deaths of at least 2. 4 million people annually. (WHO) Based on μg/m³ of particulate matter, Cairo has the worst air quality in the world. (World Bank) Government regulation on air quality pays for itself, resulting in better public health. (BCLA) Coal-based energy production is an enormous source of air pollution, increasing levels of arsenic and lead in groundwater supply, leading to higher incidence of skin, bladder, and lung cancer. (EIP)

6. Coal-based energy production also produces sulfur 7. 8. 9. 10. dioxide (SO 2) which is oxidized to form H 2 SO 4, sulfuric acid, which results in acid rain. (EPA) Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide (CO), a potent air pollutant. (EPA) Methane (CH 4) produced from landfills (and also cow farts) is a large contributor to air pollution. (EPA) While we live in a rural area of the nation, we have comparatively high levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) due to coal production, which diminishes the health of the residents of our region. (EPA) You can reduce air pollution by using public transportation (when available, which isn’t often in this part of the world), and by recycling as much of your home’s garbage as possible.

10 Things to know about Succession, Biodiversity, and Island Biogeography by: Brian Mc. Phetridge Succession: 1. Succession that begins in new habitats, uninfluenced by pre-existing communities is called primary succession. 2. Succession that follows disruption of a pre-existing community is called secondary succession. 3. Succession may be begin either by creation of a new, unoccupied habitat or by some form of disturbance of an existing community.

10 Things to know about Succession, Biodiversity, and Island Biogeography by: Brian Mc. Phetridge Biodiversity: 1. There are four types of biodiversity; Functional, Ecological, Genetic, and Species. 2. Functional Diversity is the biological and chemical processes such as energy flow and matter recycling that occur within ecosystems as species interact with one another in food webs/chains. 3. Ecological Diversity is the variety of deserts, grasslands, forests, mountains, oceans, lakes, rivers, and wetlands. 4. Genetic diversity is the variability in the genetic makeup among individuals in a single species. 5. Species Diversity are the important characteristics of a ecosystem and the communities within it, or the quantity of different species present.

Island Biogeography 1. 2. The "Theory of Island Bio-geography" is used to exam the factors that effect species richness. The "island" is any habitat that is surrounded by an unsustainable habitat. The theory is that a species richness is determined by immigration and extinction.

Ecosystems Energy Flow, Trophic Roles, and Productivity

10 Life-Changing Facts � Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources. � Organisms that feed at several trophic levels are classified at the highest of the trophic levels at which they feed. � On average about 10 percent of net energy production at one trophic level is passed on to the next level. � The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels makes decomposers generally more important than producers in terms of energy flow because they process large amounts of organic material back into nutrients which are reused by producers. � Energy is not recycled during decomposition, but rather is released, mostly as heat. � Remember- the arrows on a food chain/web represent the flow of energy, not what eats what

10 Important Facts Cntd. � Law of Thermodynamics 1; Matter/Energy cannot be created or destroyed. � Energy Webs and Pyramids show energy is transferred throughout an ecosystem. � Three types of pyramids: Energy Flow—shows the available energy at each trophic level Energy pyramids are usually the same shape. Biomass—shows the available biomass at each trophic level Numbers—shows the total numbers of organisms at each trophic levels � Productivity is the rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem. It is usually expressed in units of mass per unit surface per unit time (Ex. grams per square metre per day). Productivity of autotrophs such as plants is called primary productivity, while that of heterotrophs such as animals is called secondary productivity.