English Lexicology II Without grammar very little can

English Lexicology (II) “Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. ”

Contents n n n 5. Word-Formation I: the Major Processes 6. Word-Formation II: the Minor Processes 7. Motivation To be continued English Lexicology(II) 2

Chapter 5 Word-Formation I: The Major Processes 5. 1 General Remarks 5. 2 Prefixation 5. 3 Suffixation 5. 4 Conversion 5. 5 Compounding

5. 1 General Remarks n The three major processes n affixation or derivation (17. 5%) n n Prefixation suffixation conversion (10. 5%) composition or compounding (27%) English Lexicology(II) 4

5. 2 Prefixation n The definition of prefixation n Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, there is an insignificant number of class-changing prefixes n n Non-class-changing prefixes: natural-unnatural, likedislike, fair-unfair Class-changing prefixes: force-enforce, dangerendanger, form-deform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollege English Lexicology(II) 5

5. 2 Prefixation n The classification of prefixes n In some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes) are classified according to their source, but this does not seem to help from a practical point of view. It seems more helpful to classify the most important productive prefixes by their meaning into the following ten categories: English Lexicology(II) 6

5. 2 Prefixation n 1) Negative prefixes a-/an amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy, disin- dishonest, discontent, discover, disobey, disagree Incomplete, inconsistent, incorrect, invulnerable, illogical, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance, irrational, irregular non- nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic, nonadjustable, nonalcoholic un- uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest English Lexicology(II) 7

5. 2 Prefixation n n n Order Literate Symmetry Governmental Relevant Productive Believable Vulnerable Sane Related Aligned Mature n n n Disorder Illiterate Asymmetry Nongovernmental Irrelevant Unproductive Unbelievable Invulnerable Insane Unrelated Nonaligned Immature English Lexicology(II) 8

5. 2 Prefixation n 2) Reversative or privative de- defrost, deregulation, degeneration, deformed, denationalize un- undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask dis- disconnect, dishearten, disinterested English Lexicology(II) 9

5. 2 Prefixation n n n Centralize Plane Infect Zip Regulate Possess Pollute n n n n Decentralize Deplane Disinfect Unzip Deregulate Dispossess Depollute English Lexicology(II) 10

5. 2 Prefixation n 3) Pejorative prefixes mis- misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice, misgiving mal- maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction, maldevelopment pseud o- pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic, pseudo-friend English Lexicology(II) 11

5. 2 Prefixation n 4) Prefixes of degree or size hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, rhypercautious ultra- ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative mini- minibus, minicamera, miniskirt out- outdo, outgrown, outlive over- overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduate rsupermarket, superpower, superstar rsub- subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom English Lexicology(II) 12

5. 2 Prefixation n n n n Computer Critical Conscious Natural Sensitive Simple Number Statement culture n n n n n Minicomputer Ultracritic /hypercritic Subconscious Supernatural Hypersensitive/ultrasen sitive Oversimple Outnumber Understatement Subculture English Lexicology(II) 13

5. 2 Prefixation n 5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude co- Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation counte Counterexample, counterclaim, rcounteractive, counterattack, counterculture, countermeasure antipro- anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial, antisocial, anticancer, antibody pro-American, pro-revolutionary, pro. Fascism , pro-student, proslavery English Lexicology(II) 14

5. 2 Prefixation n 6) Locative prefixes fore- forearm, foreleg, forename, foreword international, intergovernmental, intertwine, interdisciplinary, intercollege transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, stransplant tele- telephone, telegram, telecommunication English Lexicology(II) 15

5. 2 Prefixation n n n n View Conference Continental Ground Cast Specific Racial Shore n n n n Interview teleconference Intercontinental Foreground Telecast Transpacific Transracial Foreshore English Lexicology(II) 16

5. 2 Prefixation n 7) Prefixes of time and order ex-husband, ex-president, ex-colony, exconvict foresee, foretell, forefather, forewarn pre- premature, prewar, prehistoric, prepay, premarital post-election, postwar, postgraduate, tpostdoctoral English Lexicology(II) 17

5. 2 Prefixation n 8) Number prefixes uni-/mono- unilateral, unicell, unicircuit, unicolor, unicycle, unidimensional, uniform, unipolar, monoxide, monocrystal, monogamy, monologue bi-/di- bicycle, bilingual, bimonthly, dioxide, dialogue, dichotomy, disyllable tri- triangular, triatomic, trimonthly, trilateral, trilingual multi-/poly- multipurpose, multipolar, multiangular, multilingual, polyatomic, polycrystal, polygamy semi- semicircle, semiliterate, semivowel, semiannual, semicolony, semiautomatic English Lexicology(II) 18

5. 2 Prefixation n n Lingual Lateral Polar Dimensional n n Unilingual, bilingual, trilingual, multilingual Unilateral, bilateral, trilateral, multilateral Unipolar, bipolar, tripolar, multipolar Unidimensional, bidimensional, tridimensional (threedimensional), multidimensional English Lexicology(II) 19

5. 2 Prefixation n 9) Conversion prefixes a- aloud, asleep, aglow, awash be- belittle, bestir, befriend, bewitch en- endanger, enforce, enable, embody, embitter, empower English Lexicology(II) 20

5. 2 Prefixation n 10) Miscellaneous prefixes Extralinguistic, extraordinary, extraterrestrial Neo-classicism, neo-colonialism, neofascism, Neolithic Pan-Pacific, Pan-Arabism, Pan-Africanism …… ………. . English Lexicology(II) 21

5. 3 Suffixation n The definition of suffixation n Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem, suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class. However, they may also add attached meaning to the stem. English Lexicology(II) 22

5. 3 Suffixation n The classification of suffixes n Since suffixes mainly change the word class, we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into n n 1) noun suffixes 2) adjective suffixes 3) adverb suffixes 4) verb suffixes English Lexicology(II) 23

5. 3 Suffixation n 1) Noun suffixes n Noun suffixes may be subdivided into the following five kinds. n n Denominal nouns (concrete or abstract) Deverbal nouns De-adjectival nouns Noun and adjective suffixes English Lexicology(II) 24

5. 3 Suffixation n 1) Noun suffixes Denominal nouns (concrete) auctioneer, engineer, mountaineer, eer pamphleteer, profiteer, racketeer -er Londoner, teenager, villager actress, waitress, stewardess, hostess, lioness -let booklet, leaflet, piglet, starlet English Lexicology(II) 25

5. 3 Suffixation n 1) Noun suffixes Denominal nouns (abstract) -age baggage, luggage, mileage, percentage -dom -ery/ry freedom, kingdom, stardom, officialdom drudgery, slavery, nunnery, nursery, machinery -ism idealism, optimism, individualism, consumerism dictatorship, scholarship, friendship, sportsmanship -ship aristocracy, democracy, meritocracy ocras English Lexicology(II) 26

5. 3 Suffixation n 1) Noun suffixes Deverbal nouns -ant contestant, inhabitant, assistant, informant -ee interviewee, addressee, appointee, nominee, employee -er/-or driver, employer, interviewer, computer, silencer, accelerator, supervisor, actor, window-shopper -ation foundation, exploration, nomination, starvation -ing building, dwelling, earnings, savings, clothing, stuffing -al refusal, revival, survival, arrival, dismissal -ment amazement, arrangement, movement, government -age breakage, coverage, shrinkage, drainage English Lexicology(II) 27

5. 3 Suffixation n 1) Noun suffixes De-adjectival nouns -ity diversity, equality, rapidity, verbosity, responsibility, actuality, regularity, popularity, respectability -ness accurateness, falseness, kindness, selfishness, happiness, largeness, frankness, unexpectedness, thickness, goodness English Lexicology(II) 28

5. 3 Suffixation n 1) Noun suffixes Nouns and adjective suffixes -ese Burmese, Chinese, Cantonese, officialese, journalese -(i)an Darwinian, republican, Elizabethan, Shakespearean, Indonesian, Russian -ist communist, pianist, specialist, socialist English Lexicology(II) 29

5. 3 Suffixation n 2) Adjective Suffixes Denominal suffixes -ed dogged, rugged, pointed, chocolateflavored -ful -ish delightful, successful, faithful, meaningful childish, foolish, snobbish, Irish, Turkish -less homeless, hopeless, merciless, harmless -like childlike, ladylike, statesmanlike -ly friendly, cowardly, motherly, daily, weekly -y milky, sandy, hairy, meaty English Lexicology(II) 30

5. 3 Suffixation n 2) Adjective Suffixes Denominal suffixes -ic (-atic) ethnic, economic, historic, problematic -ous (ious, -eous) ambitious, desirous, marvelous, courageous, erroneous, courteous -al (-ial, ical) accidental, professional, residential, musical, philosophical English Lexicology(II) 31

5. 3 Suffixation n 2) Adjective Suffixes Deverbal suffixes -able (ible, -uble) debatable, drinkable, changeable, perishable, permissible, visible, dissoluble, soluble -ive (-ative, attractive, reflective, productive, -sive) negative, decorative, talkative, affirmative, expansive, explosive, decisive English Lexicology(II) 32

5. 3 Suffixation n 3) Adverb Suffixes -ly smoothly, personally, extremely, publicly, naturally downward, eastward, homeward, forward(s ) -wise clockwise, lengthwise, weatherwise, educationwise, taxwise, moneywise English Lexicology(II) 33

5. 3 Suffixation n 4) Verb suffixes -ate Originate, hyphenate -en Deepen, harden, strengthen, hasten -ify Solidify, modify, beautify, classify, identify -ize(ise) Symbolize, computerize, legalize, publicize, specialize English Lexicology(II) 34

5. 3 Suffixation n n n False Sterile Intense Fat Horror Memory Apology n n n n Falsify Sterilize Intensify Fatten Horrify Memorize Apologize English Lexicology(II) 35

5. 4 Conversion n The definition of conversion n Conversion is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation(零位派生). English Lexicology(II) 36

5. 4 Conversion n Major types of conversion n Noun-verb conversion Verb-noun conversion Adjective-noun conversion English Lexicology(II) 37

5. 4 Conversion n Noun-verb conversion n n He elbowed his way through the crowd. Problems snowballed by the hour. The newspaper headlined his long record of accomplishments. Kissinger got the plans and helicoptered to Camp David. English Lexicology(II) 38

5. 4 Conversion Changes of pronunciation and spelling n n n n Abuse Advice House Use Belief Grief Shelf mouth n n n n Abuse Advise House Use Believe Grieve Shelve Mouth English Lexicology(II) 39

5. 4 Conversion n Verb-noun conversion n n He was admitted to the university after a three-year wait. This little restaurant is quite a find. It is a good buy. He took a close look at the machine. doubt, smell, desire, want, attempt, hit, reply, divide English Lexicology(II) 40

5. 4 Conversion n Verb-noun conversion n Phrasal verb-noun conversion Right branching Left branching Break down Break out Outbreak Pick up Pick-up Spill over Overspill Take over Take-over Start up Upstart Get together Get-together Put in Input Keep up upkeep Break through Breakthrough English Lexicology(II) 41

5. 4 Conversion Shift of stress n Conflict n Abstract n Contrast n Decrease n Discount n Export n Rebel n n n n Permit Progress Protest Transfer Transplant Survey Torment English Lexicology(II) 42

5. 4 Conversion n Adjective-noun conversion n n Partial conversion Complete conversion English Lexicology(II) 43

5. 4 Conversion n Adjective-noun conversion n Partial conversion n n Denoting a quality or a state common to a group of person: the deaf, the blind, the poor, the wounded Denoting peoples of a nation (ending in –sh, -se, ch): the English, the Chinese, the Danish, the Scotch Denoting a quality in the abstract: a strong dislike for the sentimental, to distinguish the false and the true, from the sublime to the ridiculous Denoting a single person (converted from participles): the accused, the deceased, the deserted, the condemned English Lexicology(II) 44

5. 4 Conversion n Adjective-noun conversion n Complete conversion n n A native, two natives, a returned native He is a natural for the job. Tom is one of our regulars, he comes in for a drink about this time every night. To them she is not a brusque crazy, but appropriately passionate. They are the creatives in the advertising department. English Lexicology(II) 45

5. 5 Compounding n The definition of compounding n Composition or compounding is a wordformation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. It is a common device which has been productive at every period of the English language. Today the largest number of new words are formed by compounding. English Lexicology(II) 46

5. 5 Compounding n Forms of compounds n n n Solid: bedtime, honeymoon Hyphenated: above-mentioned, townplanning Open: reading material, hot line English Lexicology(II) 47

5. 5 Compounding n Types of compounds n n n Noun compounds Adjective compounds Verb compounds English Lexicology(II) 48

5. 5 Compounding n Noun compounds n Headache, housekeeping, hot line, swimming pool, raindrop, breakdown, biological clock, identity crisis English Lexicology(II) 49

5. 5 Compounding n Adjective compounds n Weather-beaten rocks, peaceloving people, everlasting friendship, a difficult -to-operate machine, a made-up story, an on the spot inspection, taxfree products, fire-proof dress English Lexicology(II) 50

5. 5 Compounding n Verb compounds n Formed by back-formation n n house-keep from housekeeper windowshop from window-shopping mass produce from mass production hen-peck from hen-pecked spoon-feed from spoon-fed. English Lexicology(II) 51

5. 5 Compounding n Verb compounds n Formed by conversion n to blue-print, to cold-shoulder, to outline, to honeymoon, to snowball, to chain-smoke, to sweet-talk, to job-hop. English Lexicology(II) 52

Chapter 6 Word-Formation II: The Minor Processes 6. 1 Blending 6. 2 Backformation 6. 3 Shortening 6. 4 Analogy

6. 1 Blending n The definition of blending n Blending（拼缀法）is a process of wordformation in which a new word is formed by combining parts of two words. The result of such a process is called a blend or telescopic word or portmanteau word. Blending is thus a process of both compounding and abbreviation. Structurally blends may be divided into four types (see page 45 -46). English Lexicology(II) 54

6. 1 Blending n Examples n n n newscast (news＋broadcast) brunch (breakfast＋lunch) smog (smoke＋fog) talkathon (talk＋marathon) slimnastics (slim＋gymnastics) videophone ( video ＋telephone) English Lexicology(II) 55

6. 1 Blending n n n n sci-fi hi-fi workaholic stagflation Unicom sitcom motel dawk n n n n science＋fiction high＋fidelity work＋alcoholic stagnation＋inflation United ＋ Communications situation＋comedy motor＋hotel dove＋hawk English Lexicology(II) 56

6. 2 Backformation n The definition of backformation n Back-formation（逆成法） is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed suffix. It is also known as a reverse derivation. English Lexicology(II) 57

6. 2 Backformation n Examples n n n n edit from editor automate from automation enthuse from enthusiasm gloom from gloomy donate from donation brainwash from brainwashing sleep-walk from sleep-walking English Lexicology(II) 58

6. 3 Shortening n Types of shortening or abbreviation （缩略法） n 1) clipped words（剪切词）: those created by clipping part of the word (usually a noun), leaving only a piece of the old word. The clipped form is normally regarded as informal. English Lexicology(II) 59

6. 3 Shortening n Types of shortening or abbreviation （缩略法） n 2) initialisms（首字母连写词）: a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; an initialism is pronounced letter by letter. English Lexicology(II) 60

6. 3 Shortening n Types of shortening or abbreviation （缩略法） n 3) acronyms（首字母拼音词）: words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. English Lexicology(II) 61

6. 3 Shortening n 1) Clipped words n n n n ad=advertisement expo=exposition phone=telephone pro=professional memo=memorandum tec=detective heli or copter=helicopter comfy=comfortable English Lexicology(II) 62

6. 3 Shortening Give clippings for the following words n n n n n gymnasium dormitory handkerchief gasoline kilogram influenza business parachute refrigerator taxicab n n n n n gym dorm hanky Gas kilo flu biz chute fridge taxi or cab English Lexicology(II) 63

6. 3 Shortening n 2) Initialisms n n n IOC=International Olympic Committee BBC=British Broadcasting Corporation ISBN=International Standard Book Number CAD=computer assisted design cm=centimeter TB=tuberculosis English Lexicology(II) 64

6. 3 Shortening Write out in full the following initialisms n n n CPU DIY CEO IT AI SOS IDD GMT VIP P. S. a. m. p. m. n n n central processing unit Do it yourself Chief Executive Officer Information technology artificial intelligence Save our ship international direct dial Greenwich Mean Time very important person postscript ante meridiem post meridiem English Lexicology(II) 65

6. 3 Shortening n 3) Acronyms n n Basic=Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction TEFL=teaching English as a foreign language UNESCO=the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Sars=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome English Lexicology(II) 66

6. 3 Shortening Write out in full the following acronyms n n n Tofel ROM NATO FIFA Aids radar n n n Test of English as a foreign language read only memory The North Atlantic Treaty organization Federation Internationale de Football Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome Radio detecting and ranging English Lexicology(II) 67

6. 4 Analogy n The definition of analogy（类比） n The process by which words or phrases are created or re-formed according to the existing patterns in the language English Lexicology(II) 68

6. 4 Analogy n Examples n n n Marathon-----telethon, talkathon blue-collar workers-----white-collar workers, gray-collar workers, pink-collar workers, goldcollar workers environmental pollution-----visual or eye pollution, noise pollution, cultural pollution, graffiti pollution First Family-----First Lady, First Dog Landscape-----moonscape, marscape Bird’s eye------fish-eye, worm’s-eye, cat’s-eye English Lexicology(II) 69

Chapter 7 Motivation 7. 1 Conventionality and Motivation 7. 2 Onomatopoeic motivation 7. 3 Morphological motivation 7. 4 Semantic motivation 7. 5 Logical motivation 7. 6 Motivation and Culture

7. 1 Conventionality and Motivation • Triangle of significance（词义三角） Meaning (Concept) Word Form…………. Referent English Lexicology(II) 71

7. 1 Conventionality and Motivation n The debate over the connection between sound and meaning n n The naturalists maintain there is a natural/intrinsic connection between sound and meaning. The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. The meaning of a word is a kind of linguistic social contract. English Lexicology(II) 72

7. 1 Conventionality and Motivation n Conventionality（约定俗成） n n What’s in a name? That we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet. -----Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet Words have no meaning, people have meaning for them. ------ Eric Partridge English Lexicology(II) 73

7. 1 Conventionality and Motivation n Conventionality n n 树---Chinese 木---Japanese arbre---French baun---Germany English Lexicology(II) 74

7. 1 Conventionality and Motivation n Motivation（理据） n Motivation deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning. English Lexicology(II) 75

7. 1 Conventionality and Motivation n Non-motivated and motivated n n From the point of view of motivation, the great majority of English words are nonmotivated, since they are conventional, arbitrary symbols. However, there is a small group of words that can be described as motivated, that is, a direct or somewhat connection between the symbol and its sense can be readily observed. English Lexicology(II) 76

7. 1 Conventionality and Motivation n Examples of motivation n n The pigeon coos. airmail, miniskirt, hopeless a coat of paint He has a stony heart. The question was like the Sphinx’s riddle to them. English Lexicology(II) 77

7. 1 Conventionality and Motivation n Types of motivation n n Onomatopoeic motivation Morphological motivation Semantic motivation Logical motivation Motivation and Culture English Lexicology(II) 78

7. 2 Onomatopoeic motivation n Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据） means defining the principle of motivation by sound. Words motivated phonetically are called onomatopoeic words, whose pronunciation suggests the meaning. They show a close connection between sound and sense. English Lexicology(II) 79

7. 2 Onomatopoeic motivation n Primary onomatopoeia means the imitation of sound by sound. Here the sound is truly an “echo to the sense”. English Lexicology(II) 80

7. 2 Onomatopoeic motivation n Primary onomatopoeia cats lions roar eagles scream mice squeak frogs Snake s hiss hens mew, purr croak cluck wolves howl (For more examples, see page 60 -61) English Lexicology(II) 81

7. 2 Onomatopoeic motivation n Secondary onomatopoeia means that certain sounds and sound-sequences are associated with certain senses. In other words, certain sounds evoke symbolic connotations, suggesting particular senses. English Lexicology(II) 82

7. 2 Onomatopoeic motivation n Secondary onomatopoeia n -are suggests “big light or noise” n n -ump suggests “protuberance” n n Plump, chump, rump, hump, stump, dump, mump sk- suggests “touching or moving on the surface’ n n Blare, flare, glare, stare Skate, skim, skin, ski, sketch, skid h- suggests “moving with great speed, force, or violence” n Heavy, haste, hurry, hit, hurl, hammer, hinder English Lexicology(II) 83

7. 2 Onomatopoeic motivation n But it has to be pointed out that onomatopoeic words constitute only a small part of the vocabulary; some onomatopoeic words are not completely motivated phonetically and are conventional to quite a large extent. If you throw a stone into water, the sound you hear is by no means the same as when you say splash. Flies do not exactly make the sound of buzz. English Lexicology(II) 84

7. 3 Morphological motivation n We say the word is morphologically motivated, for a direct connection can be observed between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning. This is called morphological motivation( 形态理据） English Lexicology(II) 85

7. 3 Morphological motivation n Derivational words are morphologically motivated. If one knows the meaning of the affix and the base, then one can immediately tell the meaning of the word. Compounds words may be morphologically motivated too. The meanings of words like good-looking, spaceman, moonscape, daydream and many others derive from the combined meaning of the component parts. One thing worth pointing out is that the morphemes, the component parts of these words are themselves conventional. English Lexicology(II) 86

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Semantic motivation （语义理据）refers to the mental association suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. Here it is the figurative usage that provides the semantic motivation. English Lexicology(II) 87

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Examples: n n When we speak of a stony heart we are comparing the heart with a stone. when we say the leg of a table, we are comparing the table’s leg with one of the lower limbs of a human being. English Lexicology(II) 88

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Types of semantic motivation n n Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche Analogy English Lexicology(II) 89

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Metaphor（隐喻）is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another. It is a simile without like or as. English Lexicology(II) 90

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Metaphor n n The world is a stage. A sea of troubles; a tide of popular applause. The city is a jungle where no body is safe after the dark. Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. n ----- Bacon Of Studies English Lexicology(II) 91

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Metonymy（ 借 代 ） is the device in which we name something by one of its attributes. The substitution of the name of one thing for that of another with which it is closely associated. English Lexicology(II) 92

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Metonymy usually includes several classes: container for its content, a thing closely associated for another, tool for the doer or deed, writer for his works, the concrete for the abstract and so on. English Lexicology(II) 93

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Metonymy n n n He is too fond of bottles. The hall applauded. I have never read Li Bai. The pen is mightier than the sword. He succeeded to the crown. Uncle Sam; the Pentagon; Hollywood; the White House; Beijing English Lexicology(II) 94

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Synecdoche（提喻）means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing, or vice versa, the whole for a part. English Lexicology(II) 95

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Synecdoche n n n There about 500 hands working in this factory. This newspaper—and probably the country—will wait its time and see how the new faces perform before judging them. The birds sing to welcome the smiling year. To earn one’s bread He is a clever creature. English Lexicology(II) 96

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Analogy（类比）is a process whereby words or phrases are created in imitation of existing patterns in the language. The motivation is that the meaning or sense of the created word shares similarity with the existing language pattern. English Lexicology(II) 97

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Analogy n n n Color: black list---white list, gray list; bluecolor workers---white-collar workers, graycollar workers, pink-collar workers, and goldcollar workers Number: the First World---the Second World, the Third world, the Fourth World Place and space: landscape---moonscape, marscape; sunrise---earthrise; spaceman--earthman, moonman English Lexicology(II) 98

7. 4 Semantic motivation n Analogy n n Similarity: missile gap---generation gap, development gap, income gap, credibility gap Antonym: hot line---cold line; baby boom---baby bust; nightmare--daymare; cold-war---hot war; high-rise--low-rise English Lexicology(II) 99

7. 5 Logical motivation n Logical motivation（逻辑理据）deals with the problem of defining a concept by means of logic. It means, first, identify the concept of a genus（种概念 ）, second, to identify the attributes distinguishing one species（属差）from other similar species in the same genus. English Lexicology(II) 100

7. 5 Logical motivation n Compounds combining species and genus n n Crisis---economical crisis, financial crisis, spiritual crisis, ecological crisis, credit crisis, military crisis, identity crisis Relations---international relations, business relations, diplomatic relations, bilateral relations English Lexicology(II) 101

7. 5 Logical motivation n Clipped compounds by shortening species or genus n drug from narcotic or hallucinogenic drug n n He is addicted to drugs pill from birth control pill The Hill from the Capitol Hill Nobel from Nobel Prize English Lexicology(II) 102

7. 6 Motivation and Culture n Relation n Motivation is closely related to culture and history. In English, some words are endowed with rich cultural connotations. Words that epitomize cultural history are call culturally-bound words or allusive words. These words originated from religion, mythology, history and literature. English Lexicology(II) 103

7. 6 Motivation and Culture n n n forbidden fruit: sth. alluring but prohibited because of terrible consequences Odyssey: a long, adventurous journey the last straw: the last thing that leads one to a final loss of patience, temper, trust, or hope Waterloo: a final, crushing defeat, eg. meet one's Waterloo Uncle Tom: a person who compromises and conforms English Lexicology(II) 104

7. 6 Motivation and Culture n n n Prometheus unbound: an overwhelming power Solomon: a wise man Sphinx: A puzzling or mysterious person or thing. Eg. a Sphinx’s riddle: a puzzling, mysterious question, problem. English Lexicology(II) 105

7. 6 Motivation and Culture n n n Judas: One who betrays another under the guise of friendship. Judas kiss: a malicious intention under the guise of intimacy and friendship pound of flesh: legal but unreasonable demand or claim white elephant: A rare, expensive possession that is a financial burden to maintain, no longer wanted English Lexicology(II) 106

7. 6 Motivation and Culture n n n The naked truth was fully revealed through a newspaper. -----He told us about his adventures last night. It’s a pity you were not there. -----Arabian Nights only. Don’t believe him. Like an Apollo, he comes and arrests everyone’s attention in the hall. No cross, no crown To quest for full citizenship is really an Odyssey for Afro-Americans. English Lexicology(II) 107

7. 6 Motivation and Culture n A non-native learner should have relevant background knowledge about the target language’s history, geography, customs, habits, knowledge about the Bible and Christianity. English Lexicology(II) 108

7. 6 Motivation and Culture n National psychology n n To take French leave Double Dutch; Dutch bargain; Dutch courage; Dutch comfort; Dutch treat; to go Dutch; to talk Dutch; I’m a Dutchman if …. English Lexicology(II) 109

7. 6 Motivation and Culture n Religious Philosophy n n n As poor as a church-mouse As patient as Job As wise as Solomon English Lexicology(II) 110

7. 6 Motivation and Culture n n n as strong as a horse as dump as an oyster; as silent as the grave; as close as wax spring up like a mushroom like a cat on hot bricks It’s no use crying over spilt milk. As timid as a rabbit English Lexicology(II) 111