ENGLISH GRAMMAR WORD CLASSES O AVTORICI MARUA MALIGOJ

ENGLISH GRAMMAR WORD CLASSES

O AVTORICI MARUŠA MALIGOJ, magistrica profesorica anglistike in rusistike Maruša Maligoj je magistrica profesorica anglistike in rusistike, ki je svoj študij zaključila na Filozofski fakulteti v Ljubljani. S poučevanjem angleščine se ukvarja že od zgodnjih študijskih let in ima za seboj že nešteto izkušenj tako z otroki kot tudi odraslimi, trenutno pa poučuje angleščino na jezikovnih šolah in v podjetjih. Svoje znanje jezika neprestano izpopolnjuje s prebiranjem angleških knjig in potovanji po svetu, njena najbolj neprecenjiva izkušnja pa je bila je Erasmus+ praksa v Sheffieldu, kjer je delala kot asistentka učitelja na osnovni šoli in med katero je dodobra spoznala Veliko Britanijo in angleški način življenja.

VSEBINA • V 4 -urnem tečaju angleške slovnice se bomo seznanili z besednimi vrstami v angleškem jeziku • V prvem sklopu bomo obravnavali samostalnik (noun), zaimek (pronoun) in sicer bomo govorili o njihovem spolu, številu, nepravilnih oblikah in členih, ki jih spremljajo • V drugem sklopu bomo obravnavali pridevnik (adjective) in prislov (adverb), povedali bomo, kakšne vrste pridevnikov in prislovov poznamo, kako jih tvoriti in stopnjevati, kako ustvariti nasprotja, kako se po njih vprašati in kako jih prepoznati v povedi • Na koncu bomo naredili tudi nekaj vaj in pogledali, kako prehajamo iz ene besedne vrste v drugo

NOUN - SAMOSTALNIK • Samostalniki so besede, ki poimenujejo osebe, stvari, kraje, pojme, čustva … • So osnovni gradniki povedi • Samostalniki so besede kot: dog, Sam, love, phone, Chicago, courage, spaceship • The boy and girl were holding hands as they crossed the bridge to on the way to town.

NOUN - CATEGORIES • Obstaja več kategorij samostalnika in nekatere se lahko med seboj prekrivajo oz. lahko enemu samostalniku hkrati določimo več kategorij • Npr. samostalnik je hkrati „concrete“ in „common“

NOUN - CATEGORIES PROPER NOUNS (oz. LASTNA IMENA) • To so samostalniki, ki poimenujejo specifične stvari, osebe, kraj … Steve, Nebraska, Harvard, White House • Običajno pred njimi ni členov the London, the Mary čeprav obstajajo izjeme Is she the Mary that we met at the conference? • Pišemo jih z veliko začetnico in jih tako tudi ločimo od common nouns (občna imena) We visited Lake Erie, which separates the United States and Canada. Emily loved spending time with her Aunt Nancy in Paris.

NOUN - CATEGORIES COMMON NOUNS (oz. OBČA IMENA) • To so samostalniki, ki poimenujejo splošne stvari, osebe, kraj … country, evening, laughter, puppy, boy • Common nouns lahko naprej razdelimo v subkategorije: countable/uncountable nouns, concrete/abstract nouns in collective nouns. We visited Lake Erie, which separates the United States and Canada. Emily loved spending time with her Aunt Nancy in Paris.

NOUN - CATEGORIES CONCRETE NOUNS (oz. KONKRETNI) • To so samostalniki, ki poimenujejo stvari in ljudi, ki obstajajo v fizičnem svetu in jih lahko zaznavamo s čutili (vidimo, slišimo, vohamo, okusimo ali se jih dotaknemo). • Npr. dog, building, coffee, tree, rain, beach, tune My dog, Oreo, jumped in the air and caught the ball! Can you smell the soup, John?

NOUN - CATEGORIES ABSTRACT NOUNS (oz. ABSTRAKTNI) • To so samostalniki, ki poimenujejo pojme, ideje, koncepte, tj. stvari, ki ne obstajajo v fizičnem svetu in jih ne moremo zaznati s čutili. • Veliko abstraktnih samostalnikov je neštevnih • Npr. truth, danger, happiness, time, friendship, humour. Love and friendship are equally important. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.

NOUN - CATEGORIES COLLECTIVE NOUNS (oz. SKUPINSKI) • To so samostalniki, ki poimenujejo skupino ljudi ali stvari Npr. audience, family, government, team, jury • V ameriški angleščini se ti tipi samostalnikov večinoma tretirajo kot ednina, zato za njimi stojijo tudi glagoli v edninski obliki The whole family was at the table. • V britanski angleščini jih lahko tretiramo tudi kot množino (kar je tudi bolj pogosto) The whole family were at the table. • Imamo pa nekaj samostalnikov, ki v obeh različicah angleščine nastopajo v množini – police, people √ She's happy with the way the police have handled the case. X She's happy with the way the police has handled the case. √ It's been my experience that people are generally forgiving. X It's been my experience that people is generally forgiving.

NOUN - CATEGORIES COMPOUND NOUNS (oz. SESTAVLJENI) • To so samostalniki, ki so sestavljeni iz dveh ali več besed, ki skupaj tvorijo en samostalnik. • Compound nouns se lahko pišejo skupaj (closed form), npr. softball, toothpaste • Z vezajem, npr. six-pack, son-in-law • Ali ločeno, npr. post office, swimming pool

NOUN - NUMBER COUNTABLE NOUNS (oz. ŠTEVNI) • Countable nouns so tisti samostalniki, ki opisujejo stvari, ki jih lahko preštejemo npr. apple, boy, table, car • Ti samostalniki nastopajo v edini in množini npr. apple/apples, boy/boys, table/tables • Pred števnimi samostalniki običajno stojijo t. i. „determiners“ (določni/nedoločni členi, svojilni pridevniki, številke …)

NOUN - NUMBER COUNTABLE NOUNS (oz. ŠTEVNI) • Pred števnimi samostalniki lahko v edini stoji nedoločni člen A/AN an apple, a boy določni člen THE the apple, the boy število one apple, one boy svojilni zaimek my apple, her boy • V množini pa določni člen THE the apples ali ničti nedoločni člen boys število six apples, two boys

NOUN - NUMBER UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS (oz. NEŠTEVNI) • Uncountable nouns so tisti samostalniki, ki opisujejo stvari, ki jih ne moremo šteti. To so običajno snovi, pojmi, plini, tekočine substances: paper, wood, plastic liquids: milk, oil , juice gases: air, oxygen abstract ideas: happiness, time, information • Ti samostalniki nastopajo samo v edninski obliki • Pred njimi nikoli ne stoji nedoločni člen A/AN • Sledi jim glagol v ednini The weather is nice. This money isn‘t yours.

NOUN - NUMBER UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS (oz. NEŠTEVNI) • Kadar želimo neštevne samostalnike šteti, moramo uporabiti posebno frazo oz. mersko enoto, ki se uporablja s to snovjo, npr. a glass of water a pint of beer a piece of advice a great deal of interest a can of pepsi a pinch of salt a jar of honey a lot of money

NOUN - NUMBER UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS (oz. NEŠTEVNI) • Nekateri neštevni samostalniki lahko nastopajo tudi v množini, a je ta raba odvisna od pomena in konteksta Would you like some coffee? UNC, ker izraža pijačo na splošno He ordered a coffee. C, ker izraža količino „a cup of coffee“ There's no truth in the rumours. UNC, ker izraža stanje, da je nekaj resnično The fundamental truths about human nature. C, ker izraža dejstva ali prepričanja, ki so resnična

NOUN - NUMBER UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS (oz. NEŠTEVNI) • HAIR Your hair is really beautiful. There is a hair in your soup. • WORK Mona Lisa is a great work of art. I have so much work to do. • NOISE I can‘t study in such noise. Did you hear a noise downstairs? • PAPER I read a paper this morning. We ran out of paper. • LIGHT I need to buy a new light for my room. The light was so bad I couldn‘t read anything. • ROOM My apartment has 3 rooms. This closet takes up too much room.

NOUN - NUMBER word countable noun uncountable noun examples few, fewer ✓ ✗ fewer students; few cars little, less, least ✗ ✓ less food; little time many, several ✓ ✗ several books; many changes much ✗ ✓ much pleasure; much sleep

NOUN - NUMBER SINGULAR PLURAL • Angleščina pozna samo ednino in množino • Samostalnike postavimo v množino tako, da jim dodamo končnico –s bike- bikes trap- traps coin- coins game- games swimming pool- swimming pools* *pri compound nouns se –s doda samo zadnji besedi in ne prvi ali vsaki swimmings pools, swimmings pool

NOUN - NUMBER SINGULAR PLURAL • Samostalnikom, ki se končajo na ch, x, o, dodamo -es beach - beaches potato - potatoes hero - heroes box - boxes torch - torches • Pri samostalnikih na soglasnik + y se le-ta spremeni v –i in nato dodamo –es butterfly - butterflies party - parties reply - replies factory - factories baby - babies

NOUN - NUMBER SINGULAR PLURAL • Pri samostalnikih, ki se končajo na –f(e), se F spremeni v V, ki mu dodamo –s ali -es wife – wives wolf – wolves leaf – leaves knife – knifes *obstajajo tudi izjeme, kjer dodamo samo –s in se f ne spremeni chef – chefs cliff - cliffs

NOUN - NUMBER SINGULAR PLURAL • Pri samostalniki latinskega ali grškega izvora je tudi kar nekaj posebnosti • Končnica –um se spremeni v –a medium - media curriculum - curricula bacterium - bacteria ovum - ova datum – data • Končnica –is se spremeni v –es crisis – crises thesis – theses analysis – analyses axis – axes oasis – oases

NOUN - NUMBER SINGULAR PLURAL • Končnica –us se spremeni v –i focus - foci (also focuses) radius - radii (also radiuses) fungus - fungi nucleus – nuclei cactus - cacti • Končnica –ix se spremeni v –ces (ali xes) index - indices (or indexes) appendix - appendices (or appendixes, in a medical context) vortex - vortices (or vortexes) • Končnica –on se spremeni v –a phenomenon – phenomena criterion - criteria

NOUN - NUMBER SINGULAR PLURAL • Nekateri samostalniki imajo enako obliko v ednini in množini sheep, fish, deer, moose, swine, buffalo, shrimp, trout • Nekateri samostalniki tvorijo tudi nepravilno množino (spremenijo se samoglasniki) man – men woman – women foot - feet tooth - teeth goose - geese

NOUN - NUMBER SINGULAR PLURAL • Pri nekaterih ima nepravilna množina popolnoma drugačno osnovo louse – lice mouse – mice die – dice ox – oxen child – children person - people

NOUN - GENDER • Na splošno angleški samostalniki nimajo slovničnega spola • Spol lahko določimo takrat, ko opisujejo stvari, ki imajo spol v resničnem svetu • Angleški samostalniki imajo tako 4 spole neuter – nimajo spola, npr. computer, city, pizza (zaimek IT) common – samostalniki lahko opisujejo stvari ženskega in moškega spola, npr. student, driver, professor masculine – samostalniki moškega spola, npr. actor, sorcerer, king, prince, tiger, bull feminine – samostalniki ženskega spola, npr. actress, sorceress, queen, princess, tigress, cow

ARTICLES • V angleščini poznamo določne in nedoločne člene • Nedoločna člena sta A/AN in ničti člen ter opisujeta neko splošno idejo in ne konkretne stvari. Če ponazorimo: „Should I bring a gift to a party? “ Razumemo, da ni govora o specifičnem darilu ali stvari, ampak splošno. „I am going to bring an apple pie. “ nedoločni člen nam pove, da ne govori o neki specifični jabolčni piti Please hand me a book; any book will do. Please hand me an autobiography; any autobiography will do.

ARTICLES • A stoji pred samostalniki, ki se začnejo na soglasnik, AN pa pred samostalniki, ki se začnejo samoglasnik • Seveda obstaja izjema: pri izbiri člena se moramo orientirati po izgovorjavi in ne zapisu, zato lahko pred samostalniki, ki se začnejo na soglasnik stoji AN oz. A pred samostalniki, ki se začnejo na samoglasnik My mother is an honest woman. I don‘t have a university degree. an HR department specialist a UK passport

ARTICLES • Pred nekaterimi samostalniki nimamo člena oz. stoji t. i. „ničti člen“ • To velja predvsem za abstraktne samostalnike oz. kadar govorimo o splošnih stvareh v množini Let’s go out for dinner tonight. Creativity is a valuable quality in children. I don‘t like to talk about war. I love dogs. People can be really mean sometimes.

ARTICLES • Določni člen za ednino in množino je THE • Opisuje točno določeno stvar, ne nekaj splošnega. Če ponazorimo: „Are you going to THE party this weekend? “ – to nam pove, da govorimo o točno določeni zabavi, za katero ve tudi naš sogovornik • Člen THE se lahko uporablja za vse samostalnike (ednina, množina, števni, neštevni) Please give me the hammer. Please give me the red hammer; the blue one is too small. Please give me the nail. Please give me the large nail; it’s the only one strong enough to hold this painting. Please give me the hammer and the nail

PRONOUNS • Z zaimki nadomeščamo samostalnike, prav tako pa z njimi izražamo svojino, tvorimo vprašanja in združujemo stavke • V angleščini imamo sledeče tipe zaimkov: OSEBNI v vlogi osebka (imenovalnik) OSEBNI v vlogi predmeta (dajalnik in tožilnik) SVOJILNI v pridevniški rabi SVOJILNI v samostalniški rabi POVRATNI

PERSONAL PRONOUNS • Z njimi nadomeščamo osebe in stvari. Osebe ali stvari so lahko v stavku v vlogi osebka ali pa predmeta v 3. ali 4. sklonu Peter and Andrej are my cousins. THEY are my cousins. I gave Sarah flowers. I gave HER flowers. • Zaimke za moške in ženski spol uporabljamo samo za ljudi in domače živali, medtem ko za ostale živali in stvari v ednini uporabljamo zaimek srednjega spola (IT) He killed the spider. He killed IT. This car is really expensive. IT is expensive.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS • OSEBNI ZAIMKI V VLOGI OSEBKA/PREDMETA I Me You He/She/It Him/Her/It We Us You They Them

PERSONAL PRONOUNS • OSEBNI ZAIMKI V VLOGI OSEBKA običajno nastopajo na prvem mestu in so vršilci dejanja Jack broke the vase. HE Jenny watched an interesting movie last night. SHE The snake bit me. IT They went to the shopping mall. We didn‘t see her leave. • OSEBNI ZAIMKI V VLOGI PREDMETA (OBJECT PRONOUNS) lahko nastopajo v dajalniku ali tožilnik in so prejemniki nečesa oz. pod vplivom nekega dejanja I know Jack. HIM I gave Sarah flowers. HER I gave the books to the children. THEM They called us last night. She asked me a question.

POSSESIVE PRONOUNS • Uporabljamo jih za izražanje svojine This is Sarah‘s coat. HER I didn‘t bring Jack‘s computer. HIS I ran into a spider‘s web. ITS I forgot MY phone. OUR dog ran away. • SVOJILNI ZAIMKI V PRIDEVNIŠKI RABI Slediti jim mora samostalnik, da se ve, kdo si to stvar lasti My house is big. Her car is brand new. Their services are the best. I love his music. • SVOJILNI ZAIMKI V SAMOSTALNIŠKI RABI Samostalnik je omenjen že prej, zato stojijo zase. Nadomestijo samostalnik in pridevnik skupaj. Z njimi želimo poudariti lastnino. The big house is ours. That bike is hers. I saw Sarah‘s car, but I didn‘t see his. They all brought computers, but I forgot to bring mine.

POSSESIVE PRONOUNS • Uporabljamo jih za izražanje svojine This is Sarah‘s coat. HER I didn‘t bring Jack‘s computer. HIS I ran into a spider‘s web. ITS I forgot MY phone. OUR dog ran away. • SVOJILNI ZAIMKI V PRIDEVNIŠKI RABI Slediti jim mora samostalnik, da se ve, kdo si to stvar lasti My house is big. Her car is brand new. Their services are the best. I love his music. • SVOJILNI ZAIMKI V SAMOSTALNIŠKI RABI Samostalnik je omenjen že prej, zato stojijo zase. Nadomestijo samostalnik in pridevnik skupaj. Z njimi želimo poudariti lastnino. The big house is ours. That bike is hers. I saw Sarah‘s car, but I didn‘t see his. They all brought computers, but I forgot to bring mine.

REFLEXIVE (OR INTENSIVE) PRONOUNS • Uporabljamo jih takrat, ko je predmet enak osebku (izraža povratno dejanje) myself yourself himself herself itself ourselves yourselves themselves They only think of themselves. I did this myself. She washed herself. He was talking to himself. • Povratne zaimke uporabljamo s sledečimi glagoli: burn, behave, cut, enjoy, help, introduce You never behave yourself. I burnt myself. You‘re going to cut yourself! Enjoy yourselves! We helped ourselves to some food. He has forgotten to introduce himself.

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS • Recipročne osebne zaimke uporabljamo takrat, ko govorimo o vzajemnem odnosu med dvema ali več osebami (each other ali one another) We always send gifts to each other. Sarah and Jack haven‘t seen each other in ages. The co-workers haven‘t met one another yet.

THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE • Kazalne zaimke uporabljamo takrat, ko pokažemo na nekoga ali nekaj (kar je časovno/prostortsko blizu ali daleč) THIS/THESE uporabljamo za stvari, ljudi, dogodke ipd. ki so blizu THAT/THOSE pa za tiste, ki so daleč • This bike. These bikes. • That bike. Those bikes. • Look at this skirt, do you like it? Look at that man over there, does he look familiar? • These are my friends. Those people last night were really nice.

IT, THERE • Angleški stavki imajo vedno osebek in če ga ni, uvedemo t. i. „dummy subject“, ki ga izrazimo z zaimkoma IT ali THERE • THERE uporabimo skupaj z glagolom „be“ in samostalniško frazo, ki je v bistvu „pravi“ osebek • There uporabimo kadar želimo predstaviti novo temo: There is a meeting this evening. It will start at seven. • S številkami in količinami: There was a lot of rain last night. • Ko želimo povedati, kje se nekaj nahaja There used to be a playground at the end of the street. • Z nedoločnim zaimkom in to-infinitivom There is nothing to do in the village. There was plenty to read in the apartment

IT, THERE • Z nedololočnim zaimkom ali izrazi za količino in –ing frazo There is someone waiting to see you. There were a lot of people shouting and waving • Če je samostalniška zveza z ednini, uporabimo glagol v edini in obratno There is a meeting this evening. It will start at seven. There are more than twenty people waiting to see you

IT, THERE • IT uporabimo takrat, ko govorimo o času in datumih It’s nearly one o’clock. It’s my birthday. • O vremenu It’s raining. It’s a lovely day. • Kadar izražamo svoje mnenje It’s very cold in here. It will be nice when we get home. • Kadar izražamo svoje mnenje skupaj s to-infitinivom ali –ing glagolom It’s nice to meet you. It will be great to go on holiday. It can be hard work looking after young children.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS • NEDOLOČNE ZAIMKE uporabljamo takrat, ko govorimo o osebah ali stvareh brez da bi jih točno opredelili • Za osebe uporabljamo –body in –one, za stvari pa –thing ali –things • Everybody/thing, somebody/thing, anybody/thing, nobody/thing • Z nedoločnimi zaimki uporabljamo glagole v ednini Everybody WAS there. Nobody LIKES her. Somebody IS calling you. • Če pa se jih zamenjamo z zaimkom, pa uporabimo zaimek v množini. Everyone enjoyed the concert. They were all singing along. Somebody called you last night. They said to call them back.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS • Z OZIRALNIMI zaimki tvorimo oziralne stavke. Poznamo dve vrsti oziralnih zaimkov: omejevalne (restrictive) in neomejevalne (non-restrictive). Prvi so za pomen povedi nujni in jih ne smemo izpustiti, medtem ko drugi niso. The woman who has just arrived is my schoolmate. če izpustimo ta del, se pomen povedi izgubi, saj ne vemo, za katero žensko gre. Mr. Smith, whose family lives in Germany, will come visit us this weekend. ta del ni nujen za razumevanje povedi in ga lahko izpustimo • Omejevalni oziralni zaimki nam povedo, o kom/čem govorimo, neomejevalni oziralni zaimki pa nam dajo več informacij o neki osebi/stvari • Omejevalni oziralni stavki od povedi niso ločeni z vejicami, neomejevalni pa so.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS • WHO – ko govorimo o ljudeh I am lucky to have co-workers who are very reliable. • WHICH – ko govorimo o stvareh The book which I read yesterday is very interesting. • WHOSE – ko govorimo o ljudeh katerga/čigar je nekaj stvar This is my friend whose husband works at your company. • WHOM – se nanaša na osebe, a se namesto vse bolj pogosto uporablja WHO This is George‘s brother, with whom I went to school. • THAT – ko govorimo o stvareh, ampak ga lahko uporabljamo samo kot omejevalni oziralni zaimek The explanation that she gave wasn‘t a good one.

EXERCISE - ARTICLES • Are you coming to ____ party next Saturday? the a • I bought ____ new TV set yesterday. the • I think ____ man over there is very ill. He can't stand on his feet. the • I watched ____ video you had sent me. an • She was wearing ____ ugly dress when she met him. x • I am crazy about reading ____ history books. a • She is ____ nice girl. the • Do you want to go to ____ restaurant where we first met? an • He is ____ engineer. x • He thinks that ____ love is what will save us all. •

EXERCISE – MUCH, MANY much • There is too _______ water in the bath tub. many • How _______brothers and sisters has Anne got? many • I don't receive _______letters nowadays. much • How_______ rice do you eat per week? much • I put too _______salt in the soup. many • How_______ people were at the party? much • It doesn't make_______ sense. much • There wasn't _______traffic on the motorway. much • My grandfather does not have_______ hair, anymore. many • How _______plates do we need?

EXERCISE – QUANTIFIERS some I think I have ______ change left. any Do you have ______ money on you? a few We only have ______ carrots. We should go and buy some more. a few There was an explosion at the factory and ______ people were injured. We don't many know how ______ yet. some When you make the pie, put ______ wine in too. But not too much! It makes it really tasty. an When you go out, buy me ______ apple and a bottle of Coke. a few I have been to America ______ times. Twice in 1996 and again last year. little I have very ______ time, so be quick. any I don‘t have ______ burgers left, I‘m afraid.

EXERCISE Has/have • Our audience ______ always been the affluent urban elite. (Have) Is/are • The government ______ doing a good job. (be) Is/are • The whole family ______ at the table. (be) work • Our staff ______ really hard. (work) are • The police ______ trying really hard to catch the criminal. (be) live • People here ______ a very peaceful life. (live)

EXERCISE my • I have lost (I) _____ keys. • Did you brush (you) _____ teeth? your their • Alex and Lucy like to ride (they) _____ bikes. her • Claire is looking for (she) _____ favourite top. our • We would like to sit at (we) _____ usual table please. • Colin bought a new car yesterday. It’s (he) _____ now. his mine • It seems that we have the same jacket. Is this (I) _____? yours • I parked my car right outside. Where did you park (you) _____? theirs • I can’t find Sue and Peter’s house. Which one is (they) _____? ours • In the cinema: “We are looking for our seats. Are these (we) _____? ”

EXERCISE • • • it She is taking an orange out of her bag _____ them I am between Philip and Jane _____ them You are near your friends _____ them Put these bottles into the fridge_____ it Where is the shelf? _____ he it Give Peter a coke. Peter _____ wants to drink a coke _____ them Buy some lemons. I want to make some lemon juice with the lemons _____ her Elizabeth is getting ready for the party. Look at Elizabeth _____ him Here is the waiter. Ask the waiter to bring the menu _____ us Mummy is coming with you and me to the supermarket _____ it Take this apple. This apple is delicious _____