Energy Resources Renewable Nonrenewable Chapter 16 Nonrenewable Energy

Energy & Resources Renewable & Nonrenewable

Chapter 16 Nonrenewable Energy

Global Energy Consumption France 11. 2 BTU Germany 14. 2 BTU Canada 13. 8 BTU United States 101. 6 BTU United Kingdom 9. 5 BTU Russia 30. 4 BTU China 77. 8 BTU Japan 22. 5 BTU India 19. 1 BTU Brazil 10. 1 BTU • Total energy consumption (x 1015 BTU’s) Total world consumption 472. 3 x 1015 BTU’s (British Thermal Units) Source: EIA 2008 http: //www. eia. doe. gov/iea/wecbtu. html

Future Energy Consumption Quadrillion BTUs (British Thermal Units) • By 2050 the world population is expected to reach 9 -10 billion people. Most of this population growth will occur in developing countries. • World energy consumption is expected to increase by at least 50%. Again, most of this increase will occur in developing countries. • Beyond 2030, fossil fuels will not be able to keep up with world energy demands. From International Energy Agency figures Predicted energy demand

World Energy Resources • All energy on Earth ultimately comes from the Sun. • Energy from the Sun may be used directly, such as: solar electricity panels, solar water heating • Energy gain indirectly from the Sun includes: The energy of the Sun can be turned directly into electricity. Biomass, wind power (air movements caused by unequal heating of the Earth’s surface) oil, coal, natural gas, & nuclear energy (uranium) The nuclear material used in nuclear reactors came from the material that formed the Sun.

TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES • About 76% of the commercial energy we use comes from nonrenewable fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal) with the remainder coming from renewable sources.

TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES • Commercial energy use by source for the world (left) and the U. S. (right).

Energy From the Earth’s Crust Oil and Natural Gas Coal Floating oil drilling platform Oil drilling platforms Cooling towers Pipeline Pump Underground coal mine Geothermal power plant Contour strip mining Oil well Gas well Nuclear Fission Area strip mining Fission Reactor Hot water storage Pipeline Drilling tower Impervious rock Natural gas Water brought up as steam Oil Coal seam Magma Water penetrating through rock is heated and forms a geothermal reservoir

Creating Electricity • Commercial electricity is made by the turning of magnets or electromagnets inside casings of coiled copper wired. • The magnets are connected to a turbine which is turned by the force of steam, water or wind flowing past it. Magnets Heat source Wire coils Transformer Turbine

Non-Renewable Energy • Non renewable energy comes from sources that cannot be replaced (in our lifetime) within relatively short spans of time including natural gas, oil and coal, as well as radioactive materials. Coal fired power station • Most of the coals and oil used in industry today formed during the Carboniferous period, 350 and 290 million years ago. Because these fuels formed so long ago and are the remnants of living organisms, they are termed fossil fuels. • Nuclear power gains its energy from atoms that formed billions of years ago and were trapped in the Earth when it formed. Nuclear power station

Fossil Fuels • Energy conversion – chemical to electrical, heat or mechanical • Only about 30% efficient • Benefits – easy to use, currently abundant • Costs – a nonrenewable resource, produces pollutants that contribute to acid rain and the greenhouse effect • Oil- Supplies the most commercial energy in the world today. People in the U. S. use 23 barrels of petroleum person or 6 billion barrels total each year!!!

Using Non-Renewable Energy and Resources • Advantages of using nonrenewable energy and resources include: Convenience of a naturally occurring energy source Oils and gases allow for convenient fuel storage and portability, combined with adaptability. Easy to transport and store Able to be used to many different applications Large amounts of energy are produced from small amounts of resource Non renewable fuels such as uranium for nuclear power plants produce huge amounts of energy. One gram of uranium can produce around 80 billion joules.

Using Non-Renewable Energy • Disadvantages of using nonrenewable energy and resources include: Production of large scale pollution Local environment is often heavily damaged Resources become difficult to extract as resources are depleted Resources may be strategically vulnerable (controlled by external parties or countries) Acid drainage can cause major pollution in waterways and aquifers. Coal produces NOx, SO 2 in the air as well as toxic particulate matter like mercury, arsenic and lead. Oil spills can have short and long term negative effects on the environment and organisms.

Electrical Power Consumption Germany 364 k. Wh United Kingdom 280 k. Wh Russia 619 k. Wh China 2, 225 k. Wh United States 2, 884 k. Wh Japan 633. 7 k. Wh South Korea 234 k. Wh India 565. 8 k. Wh Electricity use per country (billion k. Wh) South Africa 216 k. Wh • Australia 217. 9 k. Wh Fossil fuels supply about 60% of world electricity needs, as well as other energy uses such as heating and transport. Source: EIA http: //www. eia. doe. gov/iea/elec. html 2008

Core Case Study: How Long Will the Oil Party Last? • Saudi Arabia could supply the world with oil for about 10 years. • The Alaska’s North Slope could meet the world oil demand for 6 months (U. S. : 3 years). • Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge would meet the world demand for 1 -5 months (U. S. : 7 -25 months).

Oil and Gas Reserves Canada #2 12% Proven Reserves Saudi Arabia #1 20% Proven Reserves Iran #3, Iraq #4, Kuwait #5 27% Proven Reserves ‣ World fossil fuel estimates vary but are in the order of 175, 000 Major oil and gas reserves billion m 3 of natural gas & 197. 6 billion m 3 of oil. ‣ The Middle East accounts for over 50% of proven reserves ‣ Current oil use will allow about 50 more years of energy

N. American Oil & Gas Reserves Alberta Scotia shelf Cordilleran Overthrust belt Appalachian Gulf Coast Major North American oil and gas deposits

OIL • Crude oil (petroleum) is a thick liquid containing hydrocarbons that we extract from underground deposits and separate into products such as gasoline, heating oil and asphalt. – Only 35 -50% can be economically recovered from a deposit. – As prices rise, about 10 -25% more can be recovered from expensive secondary extraction techniques. • This lowers the net energy yield.

Oil and Natural Gas • Oil and natural gas are both mixtures of hydrocarbons, molecules comprised of only hydrogen and carbon atoms. • Natural gas consists of hydrocarbons containing 4 or less carbon atoms. • Oil contains hydrocarbons with 5 or more carbon atoms and many substances like nylon, DDT, polystyrene, and asphalt are derived from petroleum. Natural gas Oil

OIL • Refining crude oil: – Based on boiling points, components are removed at various layers in a giant distillation column. – The most volatile components with the lowest boiling points are removed at the top. Figure 16 -5

OIL • Eleven OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) have 78% of the world’s proven oil reserves and most of the world’s unproven reserves. • After global production peaks and begins a slow decline, oil prices will rise and could threaten the economies of countries that have not shifted to new energy alternatives.

Case Study: U. S. Oil Supplies • The U. S. – the world’s largest oil user – has only 2. 9% of the world’s proven oil reserves. • U. S oil production peaked in 1974 (halfway production point). • About 60% of U. S oil imports goes through refineries in hurricane-prone regions of the Gulf Coast.

Heavy Oils from Oil Sand Oil Shale: Will Sticky Black Gold Save Us? • Heavy and tarlike oils from oil sand oil shale could supplement conventional oil, but there are environmental problems. – High sulfur content. – Extracting and processing produces: • Toxic sludge • Uses and contaminates larges volumes of water • Requires large inputs of natural gas which reduces net energy yield.

Non-conventional Oil • Oil may be locked in materials that make extraction through drilling impossible. Non-conventional oils include: oil-sands or tar-sands oil shale extra heavy oil (high specific gravity) • Because of the high viscosity of these kinds of oil reserves, extracting them relies on two techniques: The viscous oil in oil shale becomes fluid when heated. strip mining - the oil sands and shales are dug from the ground and removed for refining in situ extraction - steam or a solvent is injected into the sands to allow the oil to flow for pumping Pyrolysis (chemical decomposition by heating) makes heavy oil or bitumen into useful oil products.

Oil Shales • Oil shales contain a solid combustible mixture of hydrocarbons called kerogen. Figure 16 -9

Core Case Study: How Long Will the Oil Party Last? • We have three options: – Look for more oil. – Use or waste less oil. – Use something else. Figure 16 -1

NATURAL GAS • Natural gas, consisting mostly of methane, is often found above reservoirs of crude oil. – When a natural gas-field is tapped, gasses are liquefied and removed as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). • Coal beds and bubbles of methane trapped in ice crystals deep under the arctic permafrost and beneath deep-ocean sediments are unconventional sources of natural gas.

NATURAL GAS • Russia and Iran have almost half of the world’s reserves of conventional gas, and global reserves should last 62 -125 years. • Natural gas is versatile and clean-burning fuel, but it releases the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (when burned) and methane (from leaks) into the troposphere.

Natural Gas Extraction Waste gas is burnt at the well. This produces unnecessary pollution and wastes a valuable energy source. • Natural gas often occurs in the same areas as oil. The equipment used to drill for and extract the gas is similar to that used for oil. • Storage and transport from the drilling rig is a major problem with natural gas. On land, the gas can sometimes be piped to areas of use. Offshore rigs require specialized shipping that can store the gas at its condensing point of -162 o. C. Because natural gas is difficult to store and ship, a large proportion of it is burnt at the well as waste product or re-injected into the well to maintain pressures. Natural gas burns cleaner and thus produces less pollutants than oil and coal. A L. N. G. (Liquid Natural Gas) carrier unloading.

Hydraulic Fracturing • The process of initiating, and subsequently propagating a fracture in a rock layer, employing the pressure of a fluid as the source of energy. • Extended by internal fluid pressure, “fracking”, opens up a fracture and causes it to extend through the rock. • The fracture width is typically maintained after the injection by introducing a proppant into the injected fluid. Proppant is a material, such as water, grains of sand, ceramic, or other particulates, that prevent the fractures from closing when the injection is stopped. Underground view of hydraulic fracturing to aid in the removal of natural gas.

Specific Nonrenewable Resources Coal • Coal – formed from ancient peat bogs (swamps) that were under pressure as they were covered. • Used for electricity, heat, steel, exports, and industry, may contribute to the “Greenhouse Effect” • Four types of coal exist: lignite (soft, used for electricity), bituminous and subbituminous (harder, also used for electricity) and anthracite (hardest, used for heating) • 50% of all the coal is in the United States, the former Soviet Union and China

Coal Fired Power • World coal consumption was approximately 6, 743, 786, 000 short tons in 2006 and is expected to increase to 9. 98 billion short tons. • China produces 2. 38 billion tons which accounted for 68. 7% of electricity production and the US produced 595 million tons which accounted for 44. 8% of electricity production. • Besides the CO 2, CO and other greenhouse gas emissions, the majority of atmospheric mercury is produced by coal-burning power plants. Also, sulfur oxides are produced mostly by coal burning power plants which can lead to acid deposition. China and the US accounted for over 50% of the global consumption of coal and used that coal primarily for electricity. Generalized Coal Fired Power Plant 3040% Efficient

Coal Reserves USA #1 Reserves 27% of total Russia #2 Reserves 17% of total China #3 Reserves 13% of total ‣ World fossil fuel estimates vary but are in the order of 900, 000 billion tonnes of coal. Major coal reserves ‣ Current coal use will allow about 150 years of energy use

North American Coal Reserves Bighorn basin Northern Great Plains region Appalachian basin Green River basin Black Mesa field San Juan basin Major North American coal deposits Western Interior basin Gulf Coast lignite

Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is formed in several stages as the buried remains of land plants that lived 300 -400 million years ago.

Increasing heat and carbon content Increasing moisture content Peat (not a coal) Lignite (brown coal) Bituminous (soft coal) Anthracite (hard coal) Heat Pressure Partially decayed plant matter in swamps and bogs; low heat content Low heat content; low sulfur content; limited supplies in most areas Extensively used as a fuel because of its high heat content and large supplies; normally has a high sulfur content Highly desirable fuel because of its high heat content and low sulfur content; supplies are limited in most areas Fig. 16 -12, p. 368

Waste heat Coal bunker Cooling tower transfers waste heat to atmosphere Turbine Generator Cooling loop Stack Pulverizing mill Condenser Filter Boiler Toxic ash disposal Fig. 16 -13, p. 369

COAL • Coal reserves in the United States, Russia, and China could last hundreds to over a thousand years. – The U. S. has 27% of the world’s proven coal reserves, followed by Russia (17%), and China (13%). – In 2005, China and the U. S. accounted for 53% of the global consumption.

Surface Mining • Coal, usually bituminous, that is near the surface can be economically extracted using open cuts in the earth. • Contour mining follows the land’s natural shape Coal seams exposed Land provides economic and technical difficulties Highly erodible highwall remains • The alteration of the land production of acid mine drainage can lead to acid pollution of soil, waterways and aquifers, reduced plant growth and reduced animal distribution. Area (strip) mining removes overburden in long cuts Mountain top removal exposes coal

Coal Mining • Surface mining includes area or strip mining mountaintop removal and contour mining. Surface mining involves the removal of overburden, the rock and material lying on top of the proposed site. The initial overburden may be removed to another site while subsequent overburden is used as backfill once the coal has been removed. Removal of overburden requires large and expensive machinery. Surface mining often requires the use of extremely large machines for removal of the overburden and the coal. The returning of the rock material and topsoil to a site is called reclamation. The exposed coal seam can be easily removed for processing.

Coal Mining • Underground mining uses two main methods: room / pillar mining. They both remove blocks of the coal seam while leaving others to act as pillars to keep the roof stable. long wall mining uses machines that move along the length of the coal face. The removed coal falls onto a conveyor that takes it to the surface. As the machine moves forward the tunnel behind it is allowed to collapse. • Hazards include danger to miners and black lung, a disease caused by prolonged exposure to coal dust Photo: Eickhoff Maschinenfabrik and Eisengießerei http: //www. eickhoff-bochum. de/de/

Reclamation 1984 • Under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, environmental standards that must be followed during reclamation. • Land reclamation is the process to make new land. Steps include: Recontouring / regrading land to its original topography. 2009 Replacing or adding topsoil or nutrients as needed to improve soil. Replanting with native vegetation/fast growing species/early successional species. Monitoring for either 5 or 10 years.

1984

2009

Advantages of Fossil Fuels • Cogeneration: Using fossil fuels for manufacturing and using the waste heat to produce electricity. • Advantages of fossil fuels include: easy to store and transport high net energy production well established distribution systems low air pollution (in natural gas and clean liquid fuels) huge possible reserves well developed extraction technologies The ease at which fossil fuels can be refined makes them ideal for the transport industry. High net energy released by fossil fuels allows large amounts of electricity to be produced cheaply.

Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels • Disadvantages of using fossil fuels include: Exhaust from vehicles produces around 10% of the world’s air pollution. Accidental oil spills cause huge damage to marine wildlife. fixed supply and therefore must eventually run out high air pollution when used inefficiently high CO 2 emissions even when burned cleanly can cause severe land wildlife damage when mishandled relatively high economic and environmental cost of extraction

Fossil Fuel Emissions • The world’s power demands are expected to rise. Since coal power generates most of the electricity the number of coal power plants is expected to rise. • Oil is mostly used in transportation and the number of cars is expected to rise as well. The environmental problems associated with coal and oil power are most attributed to the emission of gases including: Carbon dioxide (CO 2) leads to global climate change leading to heath and environmental effects. Particulate matter leads to health issues including respiratory disease. Sulfur oxides (SOx) from coal which leads to acid deposition can effect the p. H of an ecosystem and can also lead to respiratory issues. Fallout of heavy metals such as mercury, lead, and arsenic. Environmental degradation can also be associated with transportation of resources, building of processing facilities, and power plants.

Nuclear Power Generation Canada 12, 600 MW Germany 20, 339 MW Sweden 9, 016 MW Russia 21, 740 MW United Kingdom 11, 035 MW 1. United States 101, 119 MW 3. Japan 46, 236 MW 2. France 63, 470 MW South Korea 17, 716 MW Ukraine 13, 170 MW ‣ 79% of nuclear power stations are found in just ten countries. ‣ Accounts for 15% of World Power Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country 2008

Nuclear Power Plants • Approximately 70 countries have at least 1 nuclear power station contributing to a total production of 14% of the world’s electrical energy needs from 439 nuclear power stations. Country Number of Reactors United States 104 France 59 Japan 55 Russia 31 South Korea 20 United Kingdom 19 Canada 18 Germany 17 Ukraine 15 Sweden 10 Total 348 Uranium 235 Barium 141 ENERGY Krypton 92

NUCLEAR ENERGY • When isotopes of uranium and plutonium undergo controlled nuclear fission, the resulting heat produces steam that spins turbines to generate electricity. – The uranium oxide consists of about 97% nonfissionable uranium-238 and 3% fissionable uranium-235. – The concentration of uranium-235 is increased through an enrichment process.

Nuclear Power Generation • Nuclear power plants use the spontaneous fission (splitting) of atoms of uranium-235 or plutonium-239 to produce heat. • The heat is used to turn water into steam which then drives a turbine connected to a generator. Cooling tower Reactor building Powerhouse

The Powerhouse • The steam produced from the heat exchanger in the reactor drives the steam turbines in the powerhouse but also creates large amounts of thermal pollution. Steam turbine Cooling tower Generator Steam Cold water Water pump Condenser Water pump

Small amounts of radioactive gases Uranium fuel Control rods input (reactor Containment shell core) Heat exchanger Turbine Steam Generator Waste heat Hot coolant Hot water Pump output Pump Coolant Pump Moderator Shielding Coolant Pressure passage vessel Periodic removal and storage of radioactive wastes and spent fuel assemblies Water Periodic removal and storage of radioactive liquid wastes Pump Cool water input Electric power Useful energy 25%– 30% Waste heat Condenser Water source (river, lake, ocean) Fig. 16 -16, p. 372

Nuclear Pollution • Wastes include waste water that has been through the power plant and has a higher temperature. Radioactive materials can also enter waterways from several sources, including mining and processing of radioactive minerals such as uranium, plutonium and thorium. Thermal pollution is a common consequence of nuclear power. Water is withdrawn from cooling towers and condensers and released back into the waterway creating a thermal plume. Thermal pollution reduces dissolved oxygen levels and may compromise sensitive species. Ionizing radiation or radioactive substances are used by nuclear power plant and the nuclear weapons industries, but also by medical and scientific research facilities. Power plant releases heated water into San Francisco Bay Power plants built near water

NUCLEAR ENERGY • After three or four years in a reactor, spent fuel rods are removed and stored in a deep pool of water contained in a steel -lined concrete container. Figure 16 -17

NUCLEAR ENERGY • After spent fuel rods are cooled considerably, they are sometimes moved to dry-storage containers made of steel or concrete. Figure 16 -17

What Happened to Nuclear Power? • After more than 50 years of development and enormous government subsidies, nuclear power has not lived up to its promise because: – Multi billion-dollar construction costs. – Higher operation costs and more malfunctions than expected. – Poor management. – Public concerns about safety and stricter government safety regulations.

Case Study: The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident • The world’s worst nuclear power plant accident occurred in 1986 in Ukraine. • The disaster was caused by poor reactor design and human error. • In 2006, estimated death toll 90, 000 • 350, 000 people had to abandon their homes • Radioactive fallout 400 times greater than atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan

Trade-Offs Coal vs. Nuclear Coal Nuclear Ample supply of uranium High net energy yield Low net energy yield Very high air pollution Low air pollution (mostly from fuel reprocessing) High CO 2 emissions Low CO 2 emissions (mostly from fuel reprocessing) High land disruption from surface mining Much lower land disruption from surface mining High land use Moderate land use Low cost (with huge subsidies) High cost (even with huge subsidies) Fig. 16 -20, p. 376

Advantages of Nuclear Power Generation • Advantages of nuclear power include: large fuel supply little amounts of fuel needed to produce large amounts of energy few direct environmental impacts low air pollution (low CO 2 emissions) low risk due to multiple safety systems

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power • Disadvantages of nuclear power include: high start up costs chance of catastrophic environmental damage if accidents occur removal and storage of waste presents large technological problems decommissioning old plants presents waste problems the technology can be adapted to produce nuclear weapons The Chernobyl accident occurred because of poor safety systems and practices. The explosion contaminated a large area and forced thousands permanently from their homes. Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant during a recovery phase after a tsunami.

NUCLEAR ENERGY • Terrorists could attack nuclear power plants, especially poorly protected pools and casks that store spent nuclear fuel rods. • Terrorists could wrap explosives around small amounts of radioactive materials that are fairly easy to get, detonate such bombs, and contaminate large areas for decades.

NUCLEAR ENERGY • When a nuclear reactor reaches the end of its useful life, its highly radioactive materials must be kept from reaching the environment for thousands of years. • At least 228 large commercial reactors worldwide (20 in the U. S. ) are scheduled for retirement by 2012. – Many reactors are applying to extent their 40 -year license to 60 years. – Aging reactors are subject to embrittlement and corrosion.

NUCLEAR ENERGY • Building more nuclear power plants will not lessen dependence on imported oil and will not reduce CO 2 emissions as much as other alternatives. – The nuclear fuel cycle contributes to CO 2 emissions. – Wind turbines, solar cells, geothermal energy, and hydrogen contributes much less to CO 2 emissions.

NUCLEAR ENERGY • Scientists disagree about the best methods for long-term storage of high-level radioactive waste: – Bury it deep underground. – Shoot it into space. – Bury it in the Antarctic ice sheet. – Bury it in the deep-ocean floor that is geologically stable. – Change it into harmless or less harmful isotopes.

Nuclear • Description – using fission to split large uranium atoms into smaller products and releasing tremendous amounts of heat energy which is used to make steam that turns turbines to create electricity • Energy conversion – nuclear to electrical and heat • Benefits – pollution-free, very efficient • Costs – risk of accidents (spread of radioactivity); transportation and disposal of radioactive wastes (Nimby!) It also produces a ton of thermal pollution!

Summary of Non-Renewable Nuclear Capital cost per k. W: High Electricity cost per k. Wh: Low R no greenhouse emissions S radioactive waste Coal Capital cost per k. W: Low Electricity cost per k. Wh: Low R high net energy production S greenhouse emissions Natural gas Capital cost per k. W: Low Electricity cost per k. Wh: High R high net energy production S greenhouse emissions Oil (petroleum) Capital cost per k. W: Low Electricity cost per k. Wh: High R high net energy production S greenhouse emissions Information source: Scientific American 2009 Thermal pollution created and questions raised about safety & storage of waste. Peat, lignite, bituminous, and anthracite burning causes sulfur and heavy metals Less greenhouse emission than coal or oil but difficult to transport. Widely used because of easy transfer and separated by boiling points. The burning of fossil fuels contributes to the net increase in atmospheric carbon (and the greenhouse effect) by releasing sequestered underground carbon.