Encouraging the Development of Cognitive Skills and Literacy

Encouraging the Development of Cognitive Skills and Literacy Chapter 9 (Cook)

Learning Outcomes Explain why an understanding of the development of thinking & reasoning, from the infant’s 1 st reflexes to the 5 year old’s problem solving strategies, is critical for the early childhood special educator to be effective. Give examples of how the processes of attention, perception, and memory work together to enable the child’s development of cognitive skills & acquisition of knowledge. Discuss why early childhood special education professionals must be able to use specific strategies for adapting learning environments for young children who have intellectual disabilities. Illustrate how programs can be designed to support emergent literacy, math, and science within naturalistic daily routines. Explain how the preschool curriculum can be adapted to address specific components (i. e. concepts of print, phonological awareness, and the alphabetic principle, numeracy, etc. ) within daily routines for all students.

What is Cognition? Cognition-the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge through thought, experiences, and the senses. Piaget-”the child’s construction of reality” Thinking & reasoning Many children with special needs have cognitive differences or intellectual disabilities that interfere with the development of the conceptual and reasoning skills necessary for mastery of academic skills

Basic Cognitive Processes 3 basic interdependent processes related to information processing are important in the development of cognition: 1. Attention-the focusing of the individuals’ perceptual processes on a specific aspect of the environment the ability to focus on those aspects of the environment that are relevant and have the greatest functional value to the task at hand the ability to ignore the multitude of surrounding irrelevant stimuli 2. Perception-the process of receiving & interpreting sensory information depends on the sensory systems of touch, taste, proprioception, smell, hearing, and vision discrimination-the perception of similarities and differences among related stimuli an important aspect of information processing ex. young children learn to discriminate characteristics visually such as shape, size, distance, and color 3. Memory-the process by which information received through attention & perception is stored in the CNS short-term/”working” memory and long-term memory the ability to learn is highly associated with memory many factors interfere with memory storage & retrieval (noise, visual clutter, excitement, emotional factors, & fatigue)

Development of Cognitive Skills The Developmental Theory of Piaget (schema, adaptation, assimilation, accommodation) The study of human knowing; human cognitive development is a product of the interaction between the environment & the infant’s biological factors (constructivist view) Developmental stages: 1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth-18 mths) Reflexive-suck, grasp, look Primary circular reactions-reflexive behavior accidentally leads to learning something new Secondary circular reactions-tries to repeat interesting events caused by their own actions Coordination of secondary circular reactions (intentional adaptations)-intentional behavior, has a goal before engaging in behavior, means-end relationship Tertiary circular reactions (discovery of new means, trial and error)-cause & effect, repeat behaviors with variation Mental representation (representational thought)-pretend play 2. Preoperational Stage 2 -7 yrs) do not yet have logical thinking & reasoning, still egocentric increase in symbolic ability, categorization skills 3. Concrete (7 -11 yrs) & 4. Formal (11 -15 yrs) Operational Stages ability to think more logically, mental flexibility more abstract thinking, complex moral dilemmas Video: Piaget’s Stages of Development (6: 17) https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v= TRF 27 F 2 bn-A

Demonstration of Cognitive Skills Through the Developmental Stages of Children’s Play One of the easiest ways to determine a child’s cognitive development is through the observation of their play. Simple object manipulation-simple manipulative behaviors (mouthing, poking, waving, banging, throwing) Exploratory play-trial & error exploration, inventing new means to achieve goal Functional playappropriate object use (pushes the truck, pounds with hammer) Symbolic play-uses objects to represent something else (banana is used as a phone), use of imaginary objects or people in play

Supporting the Development of Cognitive Skills in Young Children Several cognitive milestones are targets for early intervention. Certain disabling conditions may begin to interfere with children’s achievement in these important cognitive skills. Example: a child who is blind has great difficulty with object permanence Teaching must be activity-based (intervention goals & objectives are integrated and incorporated into pleasurable, developmentally appropriate play activities). Intentionality (8 -10 mths) children do things with a purpose achievement of intentionality is a prerequisite to almost every other skill increased motivation by the use of high-interest objects & activities create the desire or need to perform intentional acts allow ample time for the child to initiate a purposeful behavior Means-End Behavior cause & effect activities and toys (i. e. jack-in-the-box, busy box, musical toy) children with disabilities often have difficulties understanding this relationship of the object/activity Trial-and-Error Exploration leads to self-directed learning & the discovery of new behaviors and solutions reinforces persistence within the child Object Permanence mental processes, such as memory & mental representation, are used

Supporting the Development of Cognitive Skills in Preschoolers…Play is an important social goal in the development of social skills, too. It also facilities healthy emotional development. symbolic play provides an important context within which to experience & express emotions symbolic pretend play is also important because it increases the use of language to represent objects & events that are not present in the immediate environment Cognitive developmental stages of play symbolic play moves through various stages children begin by reenacting highly familiar activities (typically with themselves as the actors) it then evolves into using others (dolls, stuffed animals, other children) as the actors Classroom should provide lots of props/materials: clothing, kitchen items, telephones, dolls) Problem solving typical children often don’t have difficulty recognizing problems, but do have difficulty generating solutions children who have disabilities are at high risk; however, may need assistance not only in the development of problem solving strategies, but also in recognizing that a problem exists (and they have the capability to solve that problem) children need: freedom from fear of failure opportunities to experience cause & effect encouragement & reinforcement

Teaching Children Who Have Intellectual Disabilities Appropriate terminology for significantly slowed cognitive skills: Mental retardation is no longer used ‘ 80’s & ‘ 90’s=developmental delay Now=intellectual disability “significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior & manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects child’s education performance” (IDEA) Cognitive challenges can be caused by many factors: genetic disorders, prenatal insult to the fetus by toxic substances or viral infections, perinatal complications, & postnatal influences (traumatic brain injury). These examples do not include specific neurological processes. Characteristics of children with significant intellectual disabilities: 1. slower rate of cognitive development, as well as other developmental areas (self-help, communication—that requires the use of cognitive development) 2. may also experience short-term memory deficits & difficulty attending to relevant stimuli 3. particular difficulty with language development 4. the slower processing of information; require more time to produce a response 5. often do not demonstrate newly learned skills spontaneously & have difficulty generalizing skills to new situations Some adaptations to instruction include: avoid using rapid speech patterns (talk slower), increase the length of pauses, use repetition, create a predictable environment, facilitate active learning by teaching the child to initiate.

Special Considerations for Children who Need Extra Time & Spaced Practice Provide concrete or multisensory tasks Find the child’s most efficient mode of learning Monitor pacing Provide repetition Plan for modeling & imitation Analyze tasks Give explicit directions

Debate: To What Extent Should Academics be Stressed During the Preschool Years? Preschool programming approaches often reflect one of two polar views. One view suggests that academic skills should be directly taught in PS programs emphasizing learning the alphabet, sound-letter relationships, counting, and reading and writing numbers & letters. At the other end of the continuum are programs that stress that neither academics nor academic readiness skills are appropriate for the PS classroom these programs emphasize self-directed play & exploration and exclusively child-centered activities The ECSE (early childhood special educator) must understand the nature of these academic foundations and be able to design educational environments and programs that facilitate those skills. Equally important, these programs must be child centered, developmentally appropriate, engaging, and supportive of children’s creativity, exploration, unique learning styles, and sense of self. Example to explore: Calendar Time HIGHLY ABSTRACT CONCEPT for 3 -4 yr olds…so why do I see teachers doing it? ?

Making Calendar Time Meaningful for All Children (See textbook pgs. 298 -299) Calendar time is an almost universal activity in preschool classrooms; however, it is abstract and many children have difficulty with the concept. highly children with special needs especially have difficulty relating to this activity Adaptations to the calendar to make it more meaningful for all: 1. Highlight only the current week. Each day should be a different color. Saturday & Sunday should be distinguishable from the “weekdays. ” 2. Identify 1 activity from each school day that is only one on that day. “Monday is pudding day. ” 3. Each of these days has a special symbol or picture representing that activity. The symbol is placed on the same color square as the day of the week it corresponds to, with the name of the day printed on the bottom. 4. Introduce the calendar activity by saying, “Who knows what day it is? Right! It’s Monday. What do we do on Monday? We make pudding! It’s Monday and we are going to make pudding. Who can find the Monday card? ” 5. Teach the children to learn to recognize the appropriate day of the week card by relating the activity symbol to its matching color & word. 6. Go over this again at the end of the day. You can anticipate the future by asking, “Who knows what day it will be tomorrow? ” Point to the appropriate cards. 7. At the beginning of the next day, ask “Who knows what day it was yesterday? What did we do? ” Point to the appropriate cards. 8. Repeat steps 4, 5, and 6 as the week progresses. For a child with severe intellectual disabilities, he can work on matching and eventually match the activity card with the day of the week.

Facilitating Cognitive and Information-Processing Subskills Related to Academic Achievement Facilitating children’s engagement: Assessing problems of attention Health problems? Normal hearing & vision? Physical problems that affect concentration? be sure tasks are broken down into smaller steps, directions are clear, vocabulary is at an appropriate level, amount of stimulation is reasonable Stimulus selection Too much stimulation? Loud noises? Too bright? Too many colors/visual “junk”? Too large of a group? Being on the floor? Duration of attention use a timer, positive reinforcement, appropriate tasks, visually obvious beginning/ending of activity (for those children who have poor visual organizing skills) Goal selection & the Zone of Proximal Development use short-term goals that are reachable provide scaffolding & support with the ZPD, as needed Active looking & listening engagement can be more easily sustained through individualized, highly engaging activities (i. e. cooking-literacy, language, fine motor, science & math…all in one!)

Facilitating Cognitive and Information-Processing Subskills Related to Academic Achievement…cont’d Structuring learning experiences: Attention must be given to the scheduling of a structured, isolated, small group instructional session by restructuring periods of the day typically called “free play” or “center time. ” ideally, each group would contain children with & without disabilities; children without disabilities act as models puzzles, cutting, or drawing can easily be adapted Supporting children’s planning skills many children with special needs have difficulty planning; they need to learn how to begin a task, stay with it, and recognize when it is completed remember to have a visually concrete beginning & end; break tasks into smaller steps Arranging materials children who have delays in perceptual development may need support to organize his/her work area limit materials to only those needed to complete task arrange materials before the child arrives to the activity; prevents them having to wait all materials should be within child’s reach & at eye level put loose materials in a container to avoid spills use visual supports, as needed

Emergent Math and Science For many toddlers & preschoolers with disabilities, activities associated with pre-math & scientific inquiry may be more engaging and more accessible than language & literacy. teachers must not overlook the possibilities of acquiring language through math & science though use hands-on exploration & experimentation teachers support each child at his/her success level (individualize when necessary) use teachable moments to reinforce meanings of concepts throughout the daily routines embed and practice concepts within the daily routines Classification (grouping)-matching & sorting, categorization, and seriation (ordering, first-last) Concepts of space/spatial relations, time, and number Comparisons-similarities, differences, and opposites children with special needs may first enjoy functional sorting and matching of familiar objects (shoes, cars) “clean up” time is an opportunity to teach/practice sorting (dinosaurs vs blocks) use of attribute blocks-different colors, shapes, sizes, thicknesses

Development of Literacy Emergent literacy-refers to the developmental precursors of formal reading that have their origins early in the life of the child (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 2001). Literacy… evolves through both social and cognitive processes that begin at birth evolves gradually as a function of interaction with adults, exposure to and interaction with printed materials, and exposure to other children & adults who are using print in various “literacy events” Literacy events: daily living activities (grocery shopping lists, reading labels) entertainment (reading TV guide, newspaper, crossword puzzles) religious activities (singing hymns, Bible study groups) work-related activities (writing checks, reading instructions) school-related activities (homework, playing school) interpersonal communications (letters, birthday cards) storybook time (children being read to) explicit focus on literacy teaching (“What is this word? How do you make a T? ”)

The Precursors of Reading & Writing-the development of fine motor and visual-motor skills are critical to a child’s eventual ability to use pencils/markers to draw abstract forms Reading-the most important precursor is the access to rich, interactive experiences with caregivers & teachers that support children’s language development. oral language rich vocabulary phonological and phoneme awareness exposure to children’s books read to regularly adult’s attention to alphabetic principle (printed words , letters in books, letter sounds) Videos: CSEFEL Module 2 Video 2. 7 Using Books (Dad reading) (1: 14 min) http: //csefel. vanderbilt. edu/resources/training_infant. html Five Predictors of Early Literacy (6: 35 min) https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Hq. Img. Ad 3 vyg

Emergent Literacy Goal Areas (see pgs. 309 -310) Print awareness Concepts of book print Story sense Vocabulary development Phonological awareness Alphabetic understanding Speech/print match Control of reading/writing

Developing Literacy in Daily Classroom Activities & Routines Opening circle time Story time Literacy exploration • Names on their mats • Jobs with a name tag • Repeat stories frequently • Choose rhymes & predictable phrases • Have active participation in story time • Art & writing center • Role playing center • Book & library center; word wall Snack time • Read labels on food items • Follow recipes • Find letters in alphabet soup/Cheeze It crackers Outdoor activities • Use traffic signs • Modify Simon Says with word cards or pictures Closing circle/music time • Poster with pictures/words of favorite song • Send notes home with children for parent to read

Cultural Differences in Early Caregiver-Infant Interaction Middle class caregivers are typically verbally responsive to their infants & young children. this may not be the case in certain other cultures although caregivers from other cultures may be physically responsive through touch or through facial expressions, they may not respond verbally Middle class caregivers are also more likely to use highly referential language (frequent labels and precise vocabulary) than caregivers who are members of some non-middle class or nonmainstream cultures. Using books for pleasure or information and using writing for communication are common in middle class homes; however, they may not be common in non-middle class or nonmainstream homes.

Specific Strategies that Support Emergent Literacy Skills Teachers must help children to understand the value of reading & writing. The following examples of strategies can be embedded into daily routines: demonstrate the functional uses of print collaborate with parents to identify the ways in which print is used in each child’s home incorporate literacy events into children’s play games that require referential language to facilitate literate-style oral language structure other activities that facilitate literate language style read stories to both large and small groups and to individual children help children create their own “little book”…more on this in a minute! Video: Visual Support Video Series—How to Use Picture and Object Schedules (3: 26 min) https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=POy. SP 6 A-4 bo Activity: Make a “Little Book” of your own (see next slide)

“Little Books” (see pg. 319) A reading program, originally developed by Oelwein (1995) for children with Down Syndrome suggests a simple & fun introduction to literacy referred to as “The Little Book. ” The teacher or children can “draw” or “write” on the pages, or paste pictures and photos onto the pages. The child then turns the pages and “reads” the words or pictures she has helped to create! Instructions on how to make your own Little Book: 1. fold a single page of paper into fourths 2. cut along the folds to make an 8 -page “little book” 3. write the title on the book based on the child’s preference 4. involve the child in selecting pictures or creating drawings & writings in the book