EDUCATION THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION AND OTHER SOCIAL

EDUCATION THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION AND OTHER SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

WARM UP ‘Education is the proving ground for ability and hence the selective agency for placing people in different statuses according to their abilities’ Assess this statement – use pages 153 – 154 to guide you

Education in Social Context : Theories about the links between education and the economy q. Formal Education – education that takes place in a formal setting of the school. q It involves a specific range of subjects (formal curriculum) q Mastery is tested through formal examinations q. Pre-industrial – no need for education – work in and around home q. Industrialization brought about mass education – majority formal education q a need to educate the workforce q education is closely linked to the workforce (not accidental)

FUNCTIONALISM – SOCIETY IS SEEN AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM CONSISTING OF DIFFERENT INSTITUTIONS q. Society is a social system consisting of different institutions (family, work, education, religion, etc. ) q each institution performs essential (core) functions providing the means of survival (work) or secondary socialization (education) q each institution needs things from other institutions to work. Workplace needs individuals with a certain amount of knowledge or skill. Different qualifications of knowledge or skill (degrees/certifications) q DEPENDENT RELATIONSHIP – workplace needs the education system to perform its allotted roles in order for society to function successfully q. Development of Mass Education is explained in terms of functional differentiation – institutions develop to perform particular functions, such as work and education q If one of the needs of the institution are not being met, tensions develop within the system that threaten its stability and ability to function q Stability can only be restored in two ways: q Institution evolves to perform the required function q New institution, like formal education, arises to fulfill the need

UK EDUCATION – 1944 EDUCATION ACT q Established free, universal education explicitly addresses the relationship between education and the workplace through the distinction between pupils/students/learners q academic pupils – destined to move on to a university and professional employment q vocational pupils – destined to follow a practical or technical track q At age 11 - IQ test determines which track you follow and which kind of school you would go to – grammar school (professional occupations), secondary modern (vocational/service), secondary technical (skilled manual occupations) q Intelligence – capacities and abilities related to the acquisition and demonstration of knowledge and skills, such as problem-solving and decision-making. q The argument that this type of division is functional and necessary is reflected in secondary education systems worldwide q India – academic and vocational, Pakistan – similar to UK q The separation of academic and vocational educational routes reflects a belief in two kinds of work: professional and non-professional

NEO-FUNCTIONALIST/NEW RIGHT q Post-Industrial Societies (like USA) q move away from manufacturing q moving towards service and computer technologies q New focuses in education q breakdown of distinctions between ‘vocational’ and ‘academic’ subjects q move away from all content knowledge to skills q ability to work with others q problem solving q Education looks very different today, than 50 years ago. q Various globalizing processes have caused a long term decline in manufacturing and a rise in the financial and service sectors. q Which changes the nature of economic production and the nature of education systems. q Which type of economic activity is most significant in modern societies?

MERITOCRACY q Meritocracy – system based on equality of opportunity. Those with ability and talent achieve their just rewards regardless of their social characteristics. q Functional importance q Idea that different adult roles are measured according to their social contributions q Example – accountants have higher social status and pay because their role is functionally more important in society q Can this be measured objectively? q Tautological argument – one that contains its own proof q Accountants has greater functional significance because it requires high-level academic qualifications therefore this is proof that the occupation is functionally important to the economy q Criticism – assumption that modern education systems sift and sort students in a meritocratic way q Very little evidence of this in modern society q Societies that use this system likely are marked by inequality q Wealthy families can afford fees for fee-based education which effectively buys them social status rather than children earning it through their own talents.

MERITOCRACY (CONT’D) q. Has been suggested that the functionalist view is merely an attempt to justify the inequality in society q. Interactionists criticize the idea of meritocracy who would focus on the school processes to show that education is not meritocratic q. Marxists argue that ‘meritocracy myth’ hides class reproduction - working class kids get working class jobs not because that’s what they are better suited for but because middle class kids are getting middle class jobs.

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC THEORY q Arguable that traditional functionalism does not consider how modern social systems operate – ideas relevant 50 -150 years ago are no longer. q Social Democratic Theory – political theory that advocates technocratic and meritocratic solutions to the problem of differential educational achievement q technological changes shift from a manufacturing lifestyle to a service industry (finance, computing, IT) q social change focused on equality in regards to gender, ethnicity, and class

q The solution to these problems in the UK was comprehensive education: q Comprehensive education – system where schools are open to all children, regardless of their ability to pay, where they live or prior educational achievement. q social democrats see comprehensive education as a way of reducing class inequalities by creating more opportunities for working-class children. q Equality of opportunity was not only seen as socially fair, but it opened the door for healthy competition q Would produced a larger number of better-qualified workers to serve the new technological requirements of changing economy q THIS PERSPECTIVE BASICALLY BELIEVES EDUCATION IS THE MEANS THROUGH WHICH PROBLEMS OF TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY CAN BE ADDRESSED AND MANAGED q A truly meritocratic system would result in a more fair distribution of economic and social rewards, increased social mobility and a decline in social inequality

MARXISM q Marxism in Education – the structure and organization of the workplace is mirrored in the organization of schools. q Workplace inequalities are reflected and reproduced through the education system in a range of ways: q Behaviors are regulated q compulsory attendance q where to be and when to be there q Hierarchy in the schools q teachers exercise authority over the students q Students have no control over q the process as a whole q content of education q the teaching and learning process q students compete for grades

MARXISM (CONT’D) q Correspondence Principle – the organization of schools closely corresponds to the organization and demands of the workplace. q for those destined for lower level work, focus is on rule following q for those destined for middle level work, reliability and some ability to work independently is emphasized q for those destined for higher level work, emphasis on independent work and taking some control over their academic work q The relationship between education and the economy is based around cultural reproduction q Cultural Reproduction – Marxist idea that higher social classes try to reproduce their leadership and privileges by investing time, money, and resources in the education of their offspring. q For Marxists, meritocracy is a myth – the education system works in favor of the ruling elite in various ways q Payment for private schools, tutoring q Others relate to educational practices such as streaming - where children of different abilities are taught separately q Legitimating myth – education system has appearance of fairness, equality and merit, when in fact it’s the opposite.

CULTURAL REPRODUCTION AND MARXISM q. Formal curriculum assists cultural reproduction through streaming q. Streaming shows students that life is ‘unequal’, and this is normal q. Cultural reproduction is disguised as a consequence of the choices students make and their differing levels of ability or aptitude q. Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) – Marxist concept that argues that institutions such as schools encourage values favorable to the interests of a ruling class in capitalist societies. q. Vocational education has advantages for ruling class qeliminates working-class children as competitors for high-level jobs qgives the appearance of being ‘chosen’ through academic performance

VOCATIONALISM IN THE UK q. Vocationalism – the knowledge and skills required for specific types of employment. q. Work-experience programs (young people) q government subsidizes employers (pay salaries) to take employees and train them in vocational positions. q Schools should make different types of academic and vocational education available based on the responses of what students different interests and experiences q. Long-term unemployed q must take unpaid work q employees lose government benefits if they leave the job - fair?

CRITICISMS OF MARXISM q. Criticisms of Marxist Perspective q working-class students are not passive q students resist following rules q schools are autonomous and interpret curriculum as they wish

FEMINISM q. Feminist Argument – the relationship between education and the economy is one in which men and women are channeled into different types and levels of work q. Horizontal segregation – refers to the idea that many occupations are sex segregated q. Female-Dominated Professions - teaching, nursing, secretarial q. Worse working conditions, job security, and lower wages q. Male-Dominated Professions - engineering, computing, construction q. Primary labor markets involve companies with high levels of job security, career prospects and wages

MALE DOMINANCE IN THE WORKPLACE q. Even in fields where women are the primary workers, males tend to dominate the higher level positions. - ie – teachers/principals, nurses/doctors, etc. (women relegated to ‘secondary labor markets’) q. Gendered Curriculum – situation in which males and females choose, or are given, different subjects to study. q Subject Choices q girls typically choose English, Psychology, Sociology, Art, Design q boys typically choose Physics, Business, Physical Education q. Shop Class / Home Economics

UK EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT q Educational Achievement – gaining different levels of educational qualification q UK q girls are consistently outperforming boys at all levels of the UK examination system. But this is not helping women into wellpaid jobs. q One cause of the discrepancy between achievement and occupation is Gender Stereotyping – assigning particular characteristics to whole gender groups, regardless of their individual differences. q Stereotypes q Girls – childcare, nursing, hairdressing, secretarial q Boys – computing, accounting, plumbing q Gender Stereotyping – most fully pronounced in vocational programs q 45% of girls allocated to caring placements although it did not reflect their choices q Boys allocated to placements considered as traditionally male q Girls unsuccessful in their preferred placements, were allocated to traditionally female occupations. q Therefore, vocational training is more likely to result in both male and females being channeled into traditional forms of gendered employment, however it can also be argued that academic education does not necessarily guarantee a lack of stereotyping and segregation

PARTING THOUGHT • The relationship between work and education is a complex one, and female overrepresentation in secondary labor markets may reflect wider social processes, such as family roles, responsibilities and choices that have little or nothing to do with education. • ACTIVITY: pg 160 – on a piece of copy paper – design a poster to show the organization of schools might correspond to the demands of the workplace. • EXAMPLE: School uniforms / work uniforms • Also, be sure to discuss examples of where there is no correspondence between schools and work. • STOP PERIOD 1 – keep going PERIOD 4

DISCUSSION TEST YOURSELF – PG 161 (ASSIGNED) • Why is it difficult to define intelligence?

EXPLANATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT AND INTELLIGENCE q. Many disagreements on what intelligence is and how it should be measured q. In education, the most common test of intelligence is an Intelligent Quotient (IQ) Test– a specific measure of individual intelligence, where a score of 100 is average, conventionally based on tests of mathematical, verbal and spatial skills. q. IQ – used at age 11 to determine who is set on grammar school track or vocational track. q. SAT – partly used for entrance into college in the USA

IQ TESTS q. Supporters argue that they measure ‘intelligence’ independently of class, gender, age, or ethnicity q Ethnicity – expression of the cultural background of different groups, which includes factors such as religious affiliations, country of birth and residence, cultural beliefs, traditions, and customs. q. Critics argue that prior education, reading habits, experience with tests, cultural upbringing, mental and physical health will effect scores. q. Critics argue that intelligence is too complex to be reduced to simple forms of testing. These tests are all context dependent. q. IQ tests justify social and academic segregation q. IQ tests provide support for middle and upper classes families to have a privileged status.

INTELLIGENCE AND EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT AGNOSTIC q Intelligence and achievement may be socially constructed and explanations for their relationships take place in three forms: agnostic, positive, and negative q Agnostic – we do not know if there is a correlation between intelligence and achievement q 1. there is no agreed definition of intelligence so we do not know what is being measured. q 2. if we could agree on what intelligence is, there is no consensus about how it can be reliably and validly measured. q Further problems arise if intelligence is conceptualized as a relationship q This means it is seen as something fluid, created by individuals as they go about their lives and expressed in different ways and contexts, rather than as a permanent quality. q Suggests intelligence develops through cultural practices and ways of learning rather than it being something we are born with. q Intelligence is difficult to define precisely, but we can all agree that it refers to ability as opposed to acheivement

INTELLIGENCE AND EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT POSITIVE q. Positive Correlation – argues we can assume IQ tests measure significant aspects of intelligence in the form cognitive skills - research shows a positive correlation between intelligence and educational achievement. q. In the UK, Saunders argues that intelligence while not determined at birth differs amongst social classes. q knowledge and experience passed from middle class parents to children q middle class parents instill the importance of educational qualifications. q Intelligent working-class children are educationally successful and rise into the middle class – social selection q Middle class children who fail to capitalize on their social advantages fall back into the working class q Middle class children will, on average, be more intelligent than working class children.

INTELLIGENCE AND EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT NEGATIVE q. Negative – follows two lines of reasoning q No surprise if there is no correlation between intelligence and educational achievement mainly because the skills valued and taught in schools and tested in public examinations are those measured by IQ tests q Educational achievement is not related to intelligence, rather it is related to cultural factors inside and outside the education system that allow some students to do well but severely limit the ability of tohers. “The vast majority of one’s ultimate niche is society is determined by non-IQ factors, ranging from social class to luck” q Social Class – the individual’s position in a class-based system of social stratification, conventionally defined by occupation. q Some argue that because the people who make the IQ tests are from the educated middle class that if you score high on the IQ tests then you must be as intelligent as the person who made the test. The values reflected in IQ testes are those of the middle class.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION & SOCIAL MOBILITY q. Social Mobility – the ability to move up or down the class structure q relative to where you start q Inter-generational mobility – movement between generations, parent and child as adult q Intra-generational mobility – movement within one person’s lifetime q. Modern Industrial Societies – position in society is not fixed by characteristics such as age, gender, or ethnicity, rather it is earned or achieved on the basis of factors such as educational qualifications

CONSENSUS APPROACHES q. Functionalism – the relationship between education and social mobility focus on how education system represents a bridge between family and the economy q important social positions are filled by those most qualified q upward mobility earned through merit q. Meritocracy – inevitable that mass education systems develop in modern industrial societies, because their primary function is differentiation– allowing individuals to demonstrate their differences in objective ways q high pay and high status are rewards for abilities and efforts in education, therefore inequality is inevitable q must be equal opportunity for everyone q. Neo-Functionalism / New Right q blends a meritocracy with individual and group’s choices. q if societies provide the same opportunities to their members through meritocratic schooling system, then educational success or failure results from the different choices people make

MERITOCRACY VOCABULARY q. Social Inequality – unequal and unfair distribution of resources in any system such as education. - Inequality of educational opportunity, for example, refers to the way some children are treated unfairly based on class, gender, or ethnicity. q. Social Capital – extent to which people are connected to social networks (who you know) and how this can be used to their advantage. q. Why do functionalists believe that education systems must be meritocratic?

NEO-FUNCTIONALIST VOCABULARY q. Equality of Opportunity – absence of discrimination within institutions such as schools q. According to Neo-Functionalists, out choices determine outcomes. - Do you choose to work hard in school, or do you choose to drop out of school and get pregnant? q. Marketization – process whereby the supply and consumption of educational goods and services are opened up to private and public competition. q Neo-functionalist approach argues that schools should be privately owned rather than state controlled q Must respond to consumer demand by continually innovating and improving their service to attract and retain customers q. This approach of marketization is seen as being limited by producer capture – limits a child’s chances of mobility, especially children from lower levels of society who cannot afford to pay for an alternative education to that offered by the state q. Cultural Capital – anything in the individual’s cultural background that gives them advantages over others. - ie - higher educational qualifications are exchanged for more better jobs and higher pay.

CONFLICT APPROACHES q. While consensus approaches generaly see open, competitive and meritocratic education ssytsm as the most important source of social mobility in modern industrial societies, conflict approaches take the opposite view q. Education is not a source of social mobility but rather the means through which bourgeois class is able to cemtn its privileged social position. q. Marxism – main role of education is Cultural reproduction through education, cement your social status q educate the masses just enough to be useful employees, then a select few ‘more than enough’ to rule over them q education is a way of reproducing inequality in the workplace q costs associated with advancing educationally are huge. q. Neo-Marxism - inequality like Marxism, but with the ‘consent’ of the led, particularly through the media. - IQ tests and myth of equality of opportunity has people blaming themselves - the myth of meritocracy

FUNCTIONALISM – CAUSES OF EDUCATIONAL UNDERACHIEVEMENT q. Functionalism – supports argument for a meritocratic system. q. Working Class underachievement explained by cultural deprivation q. Cultural Deprivation – a lack of important cultural resources such as parental encouragement are the cause of educational underachievement of working class. q parental interest in education q family size (poorer families are typically larger) q position within family (older children typically achieve more) q deficient care of babies (at home parenting has positive effect)

CULTURAL DEPRIVATION q. Cultural deprivation has two main applications: q Working-class children encounter difficulties adjusting to middle-class norms and values found in schools. q Elaborated speech codes – complex vocabulary and ideas. (Middle Class) clashes with restricted speech codes – simple language to convey direct meanings. Predictable and express relatively simple, straightforward ideas. (Working Class) q Restricted speech of students clashes with the elaborated speech of middle class teachers. Research shows that this has influenced teacher assessments. q EXAMPLE: https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Xvda. MYWq 5 y. M q

CULTURAL DEPRIVATION (CONT’D) q. Wider-economic pressures on family life result in working-class children leaving school at the earliest opportunity. q Immediate Gratification – parental attitudes and economic pressure has working class children leave school to enter workforce at earliest opportunity. q families living hand to mouth q. Goodman and Gregg (2010) q 80% of most affluent mothers expected their children to go to universities q 40% of least affluent mothers “hoped” their children would go to university q Children from poorer families believed they were less academic and were consequently less concerned about doing well academically than their middle class peers

COMPENSATORY EDUCATION q. Contemporary ideas about cultural deprivation have focused on ways of compensating workingclass children for their dysfunctional family life to give them an equal opportunity to compete with their culturally advantaged middle-class peers q. Compensatory Education – supplementary educational programs designed to compensate children for their deprived home background. q services provided to pre-school children and families to increase achievements q programs to get pregnant teenagers back into school q outside of school activities and events to encourage parent involvement

NEO-FUNCTIONALIST / NEW RIGHT q. Argues that material and cultural factors are the causes of the educational failure of those disconnected from society. q the socially excluded are not just poor but are victims of anti-education, anti-marriage policies which have undermined personal responsibility q. The argument is that the underclass is responsible for their underachievement due to parents not taking responsibility for socialization and childcare. q Higher number of female-headed single-parent households that fail to provide role models for male children q poor parenting q ‘anti-school’ peer pressure q inability to take responsibility for their own behavior

NEO-FUNCTIONALIST – NEW RIGHT q. Suggests that the disproportionate representation of ethnic minorities in the underclass is related to failures in their cultural organization q Caribbean families – highest rates of single parent house and lowest rates of educational achievement q High levels of academic achievement of Asian students has a correlation to parent attitudes, higher marriage rates, and supportive extended families.

ANOTHER EXPLANATION q. Social Exclusion – being excluded from participation in social institutions such as education or employment. q Many working class parents argue they care about education but feel excluded from decision making within schools q marginalized youth struggle to come to terms with their low status and social exclusion q. Marxists believe that differential achievement comes from material deprivation and cultural capital. q. Material deprivation – a cause of educational underachievement, refers to factors such as poverty, a lack of physical resources, etc. q. Marxists focus on materialistic explanations of poverty q poor diet q lack of study facilities q need to work to help family q STOP PERIOD 4

MORE MARXISM AND EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT q. Education systems are dominated by middle class norms, values, and beliefs. This creates a class sub-culture within schools and many students can not adapt. q Middle class – educational qualifications are an important way of reproducing individual class positions q Working class – the work-based route to money and status has always been more important q the by-products are underachievement, truancy and exclusion q. Social class is the best predictor of academic achievement q. Suggest a way in which material deprivation may disadvantage working class pupils

MARXIST VIEW: GENDER AND ETHNICITY IN EDUCATION q Marxists focus on gender in education by looking at gender within social class. - go figure… Marxism and Social Classes q Little difference in male/female attainment in math/science q No difference at the lowest achievement levels for all other subjects q Girls do better than boys among mid-to-high achievers with a correlation between achievement and class that there is between achievement and gender q Ethnicity is a good general predictor of educational achievement q some argue this is correlated to social class q some argue that there is institutional and cultural racism q Labelling – a process by naming something and, by so doing, associating it with a specific set of social characteristics q Implies that school processes such as labelling, stereotyping and low teacher/pupil expectations are potentially significant explanations q Schools can make a difference; levesl of working class achievement can be raised but the behavior and expectations of teachers can also compound the levels of material and cultural disadvantages many working-class children bring to the school. q Do schools fail to inspire and educate working class pupils?

FEMINISM q. Feminism has shifted from female underachievement to learning to cope with school and workplace disadvantages. q girls now typically outperform boys academically q. Traditional gender roles are stronger with working class girls q. Today families are getting more involved in their daughters education q. Today girls have a wider range of gender identities q** Everyone turn to page 175 to look at the gender distribution chart

‘CONCERNS ABOUT MALE UNDERACHIEVEMENT’ q. Natural differences – brain functions q. Feminization of schools q Lack of male role models in schools q Female-friendly teaching practices q Positive discrimination – preferential treatment based on the individual’s class, gender, ethnicity and so forth. q. Curricula reflects positive discrimination in favor of girls - ie – AICE Sociology, dual burden, triple shift, etc.

INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLASS, GENDER, & ETHNICITY • Combination approaches are typically associated with Marxist perspective • Marxists – Class is the primary factor, gender and ethnicity are subgroups of class • Educational Achievement Predictors - class is the best predictor of educational achievement - ethnicity is in the middle - gender is the narrowest • Compounding of inequalities are more significant than simply class, gender, or ethnicity • Period 1 Stop

MODERNITY • Formal Curriculum is defined by those in power (Marxism) • Remember cultural reproduction? – the ability of the ruling class to pass on its political and economic demonization from one generation to the next • Teachers are agents of ideological control who transform pupil consciousness by trying to get them to accept the realities of life and their likely future social positions • Education, the media and religion are seen as instruments of class oppression and domination through the power they have over what people learn and how they learn it • Access to knowledge is limited through control of curriculum • Exams validate qualifications – make sure students are reaching “approved” levels • Some knowledge is more valuable than others, (AICE v. core v. electives) • Clear division between vocational and theoretical knowledge • TEST YOURSELF: Suggest one way in which knowledge is categorized in schools

DE-SCHOOLING – A REACTION TO MODERNITY • De-Schooling – proposed by Illich, based on the abolition of formal schools. • His basic ideas about power and control: • 1. Institutionalization – schools destroy student creativity, and through qualifications turn education into a commodity. • 2. Professionalism – the middle class teachers are shaping the structure, content, and development of the curriculum in their own image. Middle class is deciding what “legitimate knowledge” is. • 3. Commodification – Institutionalism and Professionalism are turning something abstract, “knowledge”, into something concrete, “qualification”. • The distinction between education and training according to Dewey and followed by Illich: • Education should be transformative, focusing on individuals and their social, psychological, and moral development as people in ways that enable them to achieve their full potential • Training is the mechanical and repetitive learning of a narrow range of undisputed facts • Briefly explain what is meant by the “commodification of learning”. Suggest one weakness with the

CULTURAL CAPITAL – NEO-MARXIST CONCEPT • Cultural Capital – different advantages and disadvantages conferred by people’s cultural histories. • Provides a significant mechanism for cultural reproduction that is carried out by the education system “in the background” • Critical of theory that schools operate on meritocratic lines because differences in cultural capital influence both the relative starting points of students as they enter the education and their relative starting points of students and their relative progress throughout the system. • Middle and Upper classes are willing to invest more time, money and effort into their children’s education. - This gives these students a distinct advantage - This undermines the idea of a meritocracy

POSTMODERNISM • Postmodernists – see schools as systems of social control - teachers and students are constantly challenging the systems of control- question their roles and demanding greater control • The tension between both of these processes has important implications for both the social construction of knowledge and learning, and how power and control are exercised and experienced. The control operates on two different levels: • Mental Control - subjects, knowledge, curriculum (which texts we read) • Physical Control - Bodies – what teachers and pupils can and can not do, ie- where to sit, when to speak, etc. - Space – security, patrolled hallways, bell schedules • Structure - periods, bells, quantification through tests, little sense of individuality • Period 1: stop

LANGUAGE, DEPRIVATION, AND KNOWLEDGE P 182 • There are differences in working class and middle/upper class language codes. These codes can be seen as cultural deprivation. - restricted / elaborate language codes • Elaborated codes – typically used by middle or upper class • Complex use of vocab and expression of ideas • Range of meanings and their ability to grasp and express those meanings • Restricted codes: • Simple use of language • Collective sense that ideas do not need to be explained • Exclusive – no need to elaborate because language is directed towards an audience that already understands most of what is being expressed • “Greetings to you, that individual of the female sex to whom I am directly related by ties of kinship and personal affection” or “Hello, mum” (Restricted codes)

LANGUAGE OF EDUCATION • Research only showed differences between working class and middle class language codes • How do you explain class-based education achievement differences? • Cultural deprivation – a failure by working class children to integrate fully into the education system • Schools failing to develop a truly meritocratic system • Longitudinal study that suggests “school effect” of measured IQ at beginning of schooling and educational achievement levels at the end of their schooling • Social class is a significant factor • Self-discipline was achieved at different levels • IQ only important in the initial development of mathematical competence • Long term – measured intelligence showed no relationship with mathematical achievement • Therefore a students’ competency to learn math involved factors such as motivation and study skills which can be nurtured by education • This evidence seems to present the idea that the language of education tends to link with schools which are middle class institutions --- does this confer the idea that there are hidden advantages for middle class children. • Habitus – “habitat”, the school’s interests, beliefs, and values mirror those of middle and upper class families.

TEACHER-PUPIL RELATIONSHIPS • Teacher/Student relationship is key to having students ‘conform’ to a particular teaching style. - this affects a student’s perception of education • Teaching Styles - teacher-centered – teacher directs and informs class - demonstrator – teacher-centered but focus on demonstration and having students experiment - student-centered – teacher as facilitator, students responsible for learning - delegation – students work independently of teacher

STUDENTS “SWITCHING OFF” • When pupils fail to see what they are learning as useful now and in the future, it turns a large number of them off to learning. • This is influenced by teaching styles and teacher-pupil relationships. • Two typical responses by students • learned dependence - educationally successful students quickly learn to follow what the demands. • experienced alienation - students see school, teachers and education as alien, irrelevant and threatening. • These responses have their origins at home, based on values and norms. • Higher suspension/expulsion rates for working-class students • Middle/Upper Class students see school as “gaining qualifications”

HIDDEN CURRICULUM • Hidden Curriculum – things students learn through the ‘process’ of attending school, both positive and negative. ie – making friends, consequences of disobeying authority. • Informal Education – things students learn that are not part of the curriculum. ie- value of learning, behavior within the school, attitudes of authority. • Socialization Messages – behavior to succeed in school ie – attendance, rules, recognize teacher’s authority, not question what is being taught • Status Messages – Messages relate to the ideas a student has about their “worth” ie – private schools, school grade, streaming (labels), academic/vocational • Identify something pupils informally learn from the experience of attending school

LABELING AND STREAMING • Labeling determined by classes (AP/regular) also by reputation. • Cultural capital has a significant impact on a student’s ability to negotiate barriers to success such as exams or negative labeling. • Streaming has a strong correlation with social class. Middle/Upper classes in the higher streams. • Streams make students feel like a “success” or “failure” • Labels have a crucial influence on how students are perceived by new teachers.

BANDING AND SETTING • Setting – streaming, but on a subject by subject basis. ie – student may be in AP World, Regular Biology, and Honors English - helps avoid students labeled as “dumb” by being in lowest stream • Banding – students are assigned different ‘bands’ in secondary schools based on reports from their primary teachers. • Streaming, Banding and Setting are all sources of positive and negative labeling - this affects a student’s self-perception • What is the difference between streaming and setting?

SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY • Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – a prediction about something, such as ‘ability’ that, by being made, causes it to occur. • Teacher beliefs about ‘good’ and ‘bad’ students are transmitted by attitudes and behavior. • Class, gender and ethnicity consciously and subconsciously influence labeling • Think about labels that we assign to girls and boys in school…… • Now lets think about professions dominated by males and females…… • Can a whole school receive a positive or negative label?

GENDERED CURRICULUM • Hidden Curriculum and Labeling affect the choices of subjects that boys and girls choose to study. - girls take more medical type classes (nursing) and boys take more business and administrative classes. • Socialization, Gender identities, and social expectations come into play. - Women – seen as housewife, domestic capacity - Men - seen as masculine, provider • Subject Hierarchy – boys opting for higher status subjects • Masculine Labels – Science, Physics, Math • Feminine Labels – Social Sciences, Language • STOP PERIOD 1

GENDER AND JOB TITLE • Women make up 53% of secondary teachers – but take up a minority of senior management positions (30%) • Elementary School – 16% male teachers, but 30% of head teachers are male • Lets look at Somerset for a minute…. .

***COUNTER-SCHOOL CULTURE • Counter-School Culture – cultural grouping that explicitly rejects the norms and values propagated through traditional types of schooling. • Peer Group – group of approximately the same age who are assumed to share similar interests. • Pro-School / Anti-School Attitudes of peer groups. - Affected by complex interplay of class, race and sexuality. • Pupil Sub-Culture – groups that develop within schools around similar interests, beliefs, and behaviors. • What is the significance of who you are friends with in school?

EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE • There is evidence of a relationship between pupil sub-culture and academic performance. - It is useful to look at the pupil sub-culture in relation to teacher-pupil and school-pupil relationship. • Teacher labeling affects educational performance. - danger of setting low expectations for students - stereotypes about social class are also dangerous • Students say that positive relationships with teachers are crucial to learning.

ETHNICITY • Overt Racism plays some part in the experience of schooling - White British students have less positive attitudes towards immigrants of other countries - Saturday (neighborhood supplementary schooling) exists because black communities feel dissatisfied with ‘white institutions’ failing them, • Cultural Racism (ethnocentrism) is a more subtle form of racism - ethnocentric curriculum involves teaching practices and expectations based on cultural norms, histories, and cultural references unfamiliar to ethnic-minorities - lack of role models within schools for ethnic minority pupils. 5% of UK teachers are ethnic minorities, while 15% of students are ethnic minorities

DENIAL OF EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES - UK • Criticism from teachers, stereotypes of cultural differences, communities or speech… all affect academic performance • Black Caribbean boys do the worst in UK schools + are set in the lowest bands. • Black Caribbean families have the highest rates of single parenthood, and have the lowest rates of educational achievement. • Subtle forms of labeling and stereotyping seem to influence educational experiences. - how students are expected to speak and write - teachers generally underrate abilities of black Caribbean students

GENDER • Gender differences in school go back to the socialization process at home - expectations and gender roles are different • Labeling - girls are increasingly labeled as high achievers who work hard and have the least behavioral problems - boys are increasingly negatively labeled in terms of underachievement, laziness, and behavioral problems.