Edited by Mr Barkhau Shamelessly stolen from http

Edited by: Mr. Barkhau Shamelessly stolen from: http: //conaapwh. weebly. com/classpowerpoints. html Cultural Changes and Challenges 1750 -1914

A Second Wave of European Conquests First Wave of European Colonialism Second Wave of European Colonialism 1500 s - 1600 s 1750 – 1900 In the Western Hemisphere (Americas) In Africa and Asia Spain and Portugal = were major players; NOT ANYMORE DUN DUN New countries involved = Germany, Italy, Belgium, the U. S. , Japan Devastated native populations No massive devastation done to native peoples Europeans chose the path of conquest and outright colonial rule Europeans preferred informal control (cheaper & less likely to cause war) � Construction of 2 nd-wave European empires in Africa and Asia involved military force or the threat of using it � Although they would have preferred non-violent takeovers, Europeans often had to fight in wars of conquest to create their empires � Always won in the end superior militaries and weapons

Colonial Asia in the Early 20 th Century

Colonial Africa in the Early 20 th Century

Various Paths to Colonial Status � British authorities meeting with Mughal leaders India and Indonesia = colonial conquest grew out of earlier interactions with European trading companies India = became controlled by Britain Indonesia = became controlled by the Dutch Neither country had a clear-cut plan for conquest Conquest evolved slowly as local authorities and European traders made and unmade a variety of alliances Acquisition of India and Indonesia = fairly easy because both were fragmented territories with no political unity

Various Paths to Colonial Status �Australia and New Zealand = both taken over by the British Similar to the earlier colonization of North America Conquest accompanied by: massive European settlement and diseases that reduced native numbers Became settler colonies = “neo-European” societies in the Pacific White Settlers in Australia

Various Paths to Colonial Status �Africa, mainland Southeast Asia, and the Pacific islands = occurred later = in the 2 nd half of the 19 th century More abruptly and deliberately than anywhere else

The “Scramble for Africa” � Until the 1800 s = Europeans knew very little about Africa � 1840 = David Livingstone went to Africa Traveled around and explored there for 30 years He lost contact with the outside world for 6 years in the 1860 s American Journalist Henry Stanley was sent to look for him -- ended up leading several expeditions himself � Journeys of Livingstone and Stanley increased interest in Africa and its many resources Meeting of Livingstone and Stanley

The “Scramble for Africa” The Berlin Conference � One European country after another began to claim parts of Africa Able to take African territories easily because they had superior weapons and a lot of money � 1885 = the Berlin Conference = Several European nations met in Berlin to decide how to divide up Africa No African leaders invited Peaceful negotiations made between the European powers that officially decided “who got what” � By 1914 = Europeans controlled 90% of Africa European powers often had to use extensive and bloody military action to maintain control within their acquired African territories

Varying Responses to European Encroachment � Some tried to enlist Europeans in their own internal struggles for power or in their external rivalries with neighboring states � Some tried to pit imperial powers against each other � Some wanted to fight back against the Europeans � Some believed resistance was futile and acceptance of the situation was the only option � Some negotiated with Europeans in an effort to keep as much independence and power as possible African Resistance to Colonial Rule

Under European Rule: Cooperation � Many groups and individuals willingly cooperated with colonial authorities � Many men found employment, status, and security in the Europeanled armed forces � Colonial rulers = expensive, in short supply, and could rarely communicate with their subjects Result = local intermediaries needed Local intermediaries = typically from elite or governing families Local intermediaries = could retain their status and gain wealth by exercising authority at the local level

Under European Rule: Cooperation �Many found it beneficial to pursue Western education Western-educated class served the colonial state, European businesses, and Christian missions as teachers, clerks, translators, and lowerlevel administrators Some with even more education = became lawyers, doctors, engineers, journalists, etc.

Under European Rule: Rebellion �Periodic rebellions (both big and small) = a constant problem for colonial regimes everywhere �Most famous colonial rebellion = the Indian Rebellion of 1857 -1858 Also known as: the Sepoy Rebellion or Sepoy Mutiny Sepoys = Indian soldiers in the service of European powers

Indian Rebellion of 1857 -1858 � Triggered by the introduction into the colony’s forces of a new cartridge smeared with animal fat from cows and pigs � Remember: Indian troops = Hindus and Muslims Hindus = find cows sacred Muslims = regard pigs as unclean Both = viewed this military “innovation” as a plot to harm them and convert them to Christianity � Indian troops in Bengal mutinied against their British superiors

Indian Rebellion of 1857 -1858 � Indian Rebellion spread from Bengal to other regions and other social groups � Many social groups within India were upset with British colonial rule Local rulers = lost power Landlords = deprived of their estates and/or rent Peasants = overtaxed and exploited by urban moneylenders and landlords Weavers = unemployed (displaced by machines) Religious leaders = opposed to Christian missionary preaching

Indian Rebellion of 1857 -1858 � Crushed in 1858 but important results followed: Widening of the racial divide in colonial India between native Indians and their British rulers eroded British tolerance for their subjects British = became more conservative and cautious when it came to trying to change Indian society didn’t want another rebellion British government assumed direct control over India ended the British East India Company’s rule there

Colonial Empires with a Difference �Major factor distinguishing the rulers from the ruled = race �Education for colonial subjects = very limited Limited to practical subjects Europeans were afraid that education and knowledge would lead to power for colonial subjects

Colonial Empires with a Difference �Colonies with large European settler populations = blatant pattern of racial segregation �Example = apartheid Racial segregation in South Africa Racial system provided for separate: “homelands, ” educational systems, residential areas, public facilities, etc.

Colonial Empires with a Difference � European powers were much more involved and “hands on” with their colonial states in the 19 th century Affected the daily lives of people far European factories on the west coast of Africa more than empires had in the past Centralized tax-collecting agencies New modes of transportation and communication Imposed changes in landholding patterns Integration of colonial economies into global trade network Public health and sanitation measures

Colonial Empires with a Difference � European colonizers felt the need to count, classify, and organize their colonial subjects Wanted a way to manage the unfamiliar, complex, varied, and changing societies that they now controlled Made colonial administration easier Ex: In African colonies, Europeans identified and sometimes even invented distinct tribes each with its own territory, language, customs, chief, etc.

Colonial Empires with a Difference �European colonial policies contradicted their own values and practices at home European Nations European Colonies Becoming more democratic Were mostly dictatorships (used to create order and stability) Swept up in nationalism Total opposite of national independence Christian and Enlightenment idea of human equality Racial divisions, ranked racial classifications, etc. Industrialization and modernization Modernization discouraged because Europeans did not want modernization to cause opposition to colonial rule

Colonial Economies 1750 -1914

Economies of Coercion: Forced Labor and the Power of the State �Forced labor was often used to meet the demands of the colonial state Examples: Building railroads Constructing government buildings Transporting goods

Economies of Coercion: Forced Labor and the Power of the State �Most infamous cruelties of forced labor = in the Congo in the early 1900 s Governed by King Leopold II of Belgium Forced villagers to collect rubber they had daily rubber quotas If rubber quotas were not met, villagers were tortured and/or killed ▪ Shot, ears/limbs cut off, tied up with ropes around their necks and dragged away, etc.

Economies of Coercion: Forced Labor and the Power of the State �Several colonial states used “cultivation systems” Peasants required to cultivate 20% or more of their land in cash crops such as sugar or tobacco to meet their tax obligation Cash crops sold to government contractors at fixed, low prices Cash crops resold in the world market for a very high profit Sorting Tobacco Leaves in Java, 1930 s

Economies of Cash-Crop Agriculture � In some places, colonial rule created conditions that facilitated and increased cash-crop production to the advantage of local farmers � Example: British authorities in Burma encouraged rice production among small farmers Ended the prohibition on rice British Authorities Surveying Rice Production in Burma exports Provided irrigation and transportation facilities Passed laws that encouraged private ownership of small farms

Economies of Cash-Crop Agriculture �Results of these policies in Burma: Population boomed in Burma AND in other parts of Asia Rice exports soared Small farmers able to buy their own land, build nice homes, buy imported goods, etc. Standards of living improved sharply

Economies of Cash-Crop Agriculture � Profitable cash-crop farming = in the southern Gold Coast British territory in West Africa Modern-day Ghana African farmers themselves developed this export agriculture Planted cacao trees in huge quantities and became the world’s leading supplier of cocoa by 1911 Drying Cocoa Beans in the Gold Coast

Economies of Cash-Crop Agriculture � Problems with this success: Labor shortage = led to employment of former slaves who were exploited Labor shortage = led to migration of workers from the interior of Africa to the Gold Coast caused ethnic and class tensions Some men married women for their labor power, but didn’t take care of them Many colonies only specialized in one or two cash-crops hurt them when world market prices dropped Breaking Open (Cracking) the Pods

Economies of Wage Labor: Working for Europeans � Millions of colonial subjects across Asia and Africa sought employment in European-owned plantations, mines, construction projects, and homes Needed money Lost land they needed to Workers in a South African Mine support their families Sometimes forced by colonial authorities

Economies of Wage Labor: Working for Europeans � European-financed plantations in Southeast Asia that grew sugarcane, rubber, tea, tobacco, and so on employed hundreds of thousands of workers Workers = subject to very strict control Often housed in barracks Paid very little (and women made even less) Disease was common high death rates Tea Plantation in Ceylon

Economies of Wage Labor: Working for Europeans � Even more land taken from local people in Africa than in Southeast Asia Ex: South Africa in 1913 whites were 20% of the population, but controlled 88% of the land � “Squatters” = Africans who Workers Harvesting Leaves on an African Tea Plantation stayed and worked for the new landowners as the price of remaining on what had been their own land

Economies of Wage Labor Working for Europeans � Another source of wage labor for many = mines � Major tin mines in Malaysia Miners = mostly impoverished Chinese workers Worked on strictly-controlled 3 -year contracts Horrible living conditions Rampant diseases Dangerous work = many accidents High death rates Chinese Tin Miners

Economies of Wage Labor: Working for Europeans �Major gold and diamond mines in South Africa Workers = mainly Painting of Two African Miners impoverished Africans Recruited on short-term contracts Lived in all-male prison-like barracks surrounded by barbed wire Forced to return home periodically so they didn’t establish a permanent family life near the mines

Large Colonial Cities � Examples: Nairobi, Cairo, Singapore, etc. � Racially segregated � Often unsanitary � Greatly overcrowded � Seen as meccas of opportunity for people all across the social spectrum � Western-educated people found opportunities as: teachers, doctors, professional specialists, clerks in European business offices, workers in European government bureaucracies, etc. Singapore in the 1920 s

Large Colonial Cities � Working-class elite = skilled workers on railways or in ports Also included workers in factories that processed agricultural goods or manufactured products such as beer, cigarettes, furniture, etc. � Urban poor worked as: construction workers, rickshaw drivers, food sellers, domestic servants, prostitutes, etc. Cairo in the 1920 s The Main Railway Station

African Women and the Colonial Economy � In pre-colonial times African women: Were active farmers Were responsible for planting, weeding, and harvesting Prepared the food Cared for the children Were allocated their own fields with which they could feed their families Were involved in local trade activity Enjoyed some economic independence

African Women and the Colonial Economy � Under colonial rule = men moved into wage labor or cash-crop agriculture � This put A LOT more responsibility on women: Total responsibility for domestic food production Had to also supply food to men in the cities Took over traditionally male tasks breaking the ground for planting, milking cows, supervising the herds, etc.

African Women and the Colonial Economy � Result = many men and women began to live separate lives and develop different cultures Men in the cities working for wages Women in the villages focusing on subsistence agriculture � Many married couples no longer lived together Women started to build closer relationships with their own family instead of their husband’s � Many women became the heads of their households Portrait of a Luo Woman from Kenya

Assessing Colonial Development � Clear results of economic development within European colonies in the 19 th-20 th centuries: � (1) Colonial rule facilitated the integration of Asian and African economies into a global network of exchange More land labor = devoted to production for the global market And, obviously, many of these excolonies have yet to develop a modern industrial society � (2) Nowhere did a breakthrough to modern industrial society occur

Assessing Colonial Development � (3) The appearance of some elements of modernization Modern administrative and bureaucratic structures Schools used to train the intermediaries that were so crucial to colonial rule Communication and transportation railroads, motorways, ports, telegraphs, postal services Modest health care provisions part of the “civilizing mission” The Building of an African Railway, 1905

Identity and Cultural Change

Cultural Change in the Colonial Era: Education � Many generated a new identity as a result of Western education = provided by missionary and government schools � Education = helped many escape undesirable tasks, such as forced labor � Education provided many opportunities: Access to better-paying jobs in government agencies, missions, business firms, etc. Access to imported goods and luxury items Social mobility and elite status within the community Equality with whites (as much as possible) Leopold Senhor West African writer and political leader in the early 1900 s

Cultural Change in the Colonial Era: Education � Many Western-educated people embraced other aspects of European culture as well: Dressed in European clothes Learned French or English Built European-style houses Got married in long, white dresses � Education created a new The King of Siam and other young students, all dressed in European clothing cultural divide = between the minority who had mastered the ways of their rulers and the majority who had not

Cultural Change in the Colonial Era: Education � Western-educated elites believed they were the key to modernizing their societies Believed they could do so within a colonial framework and in association with colonial authorities � These educated elites = had these hopes crushed Europeans generally declined to treat their Asian and African subjects as equals Europeans constantly referred to their cultures as primitive and backward Result = Western-educated elites turned against colonial rule and foreign imperialism and became leaders in struggles for independence “Be the change you wish to see in the world. ”

Cultural Change in the Colonial Era: Religion �Religion = provided the basis for new or transformed identities �Widespread conversion to Christianity in: New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, non-Muslim Africa, etc. By the 1960 s = about 50 million Africans had converted to Christianity

Cultural Change in the Colonial Era: Religion � Attractions to Christianity: Military defeat shook confidence in the old gods and local practices led to openness to new sources of supernatural power Christianity = associated with modern education (because missionary schools provided education) Oppressed groups (young, poor, women, etc. ) = found new opportunities and greater freedom with missions Spread of the Christian message = mainly by African teachers and pastors, not European missionaries German Missionaries in Southwest Africa, c. 1910

Cultural Change in the Colonial Era: Religion � In India = many turned toward a revived Hinduism More distinct and unified � Purposes of this revived Hinduism: Provide India with an accessible Swami Vivekananda One of India’s most influential religious figures of the 19 th century religion on an even keel with Christianity Provide Indians with a feeling of worth when faced with the humiliation of colonial rule Uplift India’s village communities Offer spiritual support to a Western world caught up in materialism and militarism

Cultural Change in the Colonial Era: Race � New cultural identity = an “African identity” Before = no one in Africa identified themselves as “African” Based their identity on their: local community, religion, state/empire, etc. � Goal = to revive the cultural self- confidence of people in Africa by creating a larger, common, and respected “African tradition” equivalent to “Western culture”

Cultural Change in the Colonial Era: Race �Scholar Edward Blyden argued that: the world’s races are different, but each has its own distinct contribution to make to the world African Culture European Culture Cooperative and egalitarian societies Competitive, individualistic, class-ridden societies Harmonious relationship with nature Dominate and exploit the natural order Religious sensibility lost – more attention now to material gain

Cultural Change in the Colonial Era: Tribe � Most important new sense of belonging that developed during the colonial era = the idea of “tribe” or ethnic identity � Idea of an Africa sharply divided into separate and distinct “tribes” = a European idea To help with colonial administration � People even had to identify their “tribe” on applications for jobs, schools, and identity cards

Cultural Change in the Colonial Era: Tribe � Africans gradually found ethnic and tribal labels useful especially in large urban cities Helped them to categorize themselves and others in these massive cities with a wide variety of people Sense of security in being part of a tribe Tribal and ethnic associations created to provide mutual assistance while in the cities Women from the Igbo Tribe of southeastern Nigeria