Dyslexia Your Questions Answered Dyslexia as understood in

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Dyslexia: Your Questions Answered Dyslexia as understood in a Neuro-developmental Model of Assessment and

Dyslexia: Your Questions Answered Dyslexia as understood in a Neuro-developmental Model of Assessment and Interventions 1

Agenda § Housekeeping § Introduction of Lexicon Team § Presentation § Discussion 2

Agenda § Housekeeping § Introduction of Lexicon Team § Presentation § Discussion 2

Introduction Lexicon Team Rudolf Stockling MSc (Psych) MAPS Registered Psychologist NSW Australia Educational Psychologist

Introduction Lexicon Team Rudolf Stockling MSc (Psych) MAPS Registered Psychologist NSW Australia Educational Psychologist Director of Assessment Lexicon Reading Centre Praveen Vasanthakumari MSc (Psych), Sp. Ed. , Education Therapist Learning Specialist Saloni Krishnan MSc Cognitive Sciences BASLP Communication and Speech and Language Therapist Rania Anis Bin Taleb MSc SPM PMI Member Managing Director www. lexiconreadingcenter. org 3

Presentation Outline 1. The Neuro-developmental Model: Recap 2. Dyslexia: What is it ? Scientific

Presentation Outline 1. The Neuro-developmental Model: Recap 2. Dyslexia: What is it ? Scientific Theories of Dyslexia 3. Dyslexia: Who has it ? Characteristics of Dyslexia 4. Dyslexia: What to do about It ? A) Assessment b) Interventions 5. Discussion 4

1. Neuro-developmental Model n n n n n Eight Constructs �� Attention �� Higher

1. Neuro-developmental Model n n n n n Eight Constructs �� Attention �� Higher Order Cognition �� Language �� Memory �� Neuro-motor Function �� Social Cognition �� Spatial Ordering �� Temporal-Sequential Ordering 5

Attention Control Social thinking Memory The Neurodevelopment Systems Higher Order Thinking Neuro. Motor Language

Attention Control Social thinking Memory The Neurodevelopment Systems Higher Order Thinking Neuro. Motor Language Spatial Order Sequential Ordering 6

2. Dyslexia: What is it ? Scientific Theories of Dyslexia 7

2. Dyslexia: What is it ? Scientific Theories of Dyslexia 7

I saw a red surfbord laying on the rode. It look like my friend

I saw a red surfbord laying on the rode. It look like my friend so I hid it in the bushis just in case. When I whent to the beach I saw my frend Spence he had his bord…. 8

Visual problems in reading 9

Visual problems in reading 9

Definition of the International Dyslexia Association Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is

Definition of the International Dyslexia Association Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized by n difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. n These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often n unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. 10

How Widespread is Dyslexia? % w/ reading disability n n Current research shows that

How Widespread is Dyslexia? % w/ reading disability n n Current research shows that approximately 15 -20% of the population has a reading disability. Likely to be dyslexic School population Of that 15 -20%, 85% are dyslexic 11

Neural Basis of Reading Left inferior frontal gyrus n Left temporoparietal cortex n Left

Neural Basis of Reading Left inferior frontal gyrus n Left temporoparietal cortex n Left infero-temporal cortex n Speech sounds Alphabetic code Visual word form 12

Dyslexia Brain Briefings, Society for Neuroscience 13

Dyslexia Brain Briefings, Society for Neuroscience 13

Major Current Dyslexia: Theories 1. Phonological Deficit Hypothesis 2. Double Deficit Hypothesis 3. Automaticity

Major Current Dyslexia: Theories 1. Phonological Deficit Hypothesis 2. Double Deficit Hypothesis 3. Automaticity Deficit Hypothesis 4. Cerebellar Deficit Hypothesis 14

1. The Phonological Deficit Hypothesis Cause of Reading difficulties is in phonological processing such

1. The Phonological Deficit Hypothesis Cause of Reading difficulties is in phonological processing such as problems in • sound segmentation and • in word blending both are critical for the development of reading and spelling. 15

2. The Double Deficit Hypothesis Two crucial deficits: n (i) Phonological processing problems n

2. The Double Deficit Hypothesis Two crucial deficits: n (i) Phonological processing problems n (ii) Rapid processing problems (naming speed, comparing same different speed) 16

3. The Automatization Deficit Hypothesis The concept of an ‘automatization deficit’ explains the range

3. The Automatization Deficit Hypothesis The concept of an ‘automatization deficit’ explains the range of problems shown by dyslexic children. n Dyslexic children will have difficulties on any task that requires automatisation of skill. n Even on task where they appear to be performing normally they have to try harder to achieve the same results. n 17

2. The Cerebellar Deficit Hypothesis n Cerebellum may be an underlying causal factor for

2. The Cerebellar Deficit Hypothesis n Cerebellum may be an underlying causal factor for all the characteristics explained by the other theories n Cerebellum has many functions such as balance, motor control etc. 18

Cerebellum 19

Cerebellum 19

The role of the cerebellum in dyslexia n It’s role in making processes automatic

The role of the cerebellum in dyslexia n It’s role in making processes automatic relates to the difficulty experienced for Dyslexic people to become fluent readers. Why specific to reading? Severe problems arise for reading and spelling, because they require both good phonological skills and good automatisation - double difficulty! 20

Questions n How different are these theories? n Is this like the four men

Questions n How different are these theories? n Is this like the four men and the elephant? 21

Six Blind Men 22

Six Blind Men 22

Difficulties experienced by dyslexic children 23

Difficulties experienced by dyslexic children 23

Answers Answer: (i) Different theories are at different levels of explanation (ii) The type

Answers Answer: (i) Different theories are at different levels of explanation (ii) The type of explanation that is most valuable depends upon the question you are asking! (iii) It may be that different dyslexic children suffer from different underlying causes. 24

Why Are many Dyslexic Children Clever? ! The cerebellum is needed for unconscious development

Why Are many Dyslexic Children Clever? ! The cerebellum is needed for unconscious development of skill fluency. Skills can be acquired without the cerebellum. n The traditional seat of intellectual behaviour, the frontal lobes of the cortex, may well be completely spared, or even over-achieving. n IQ, metacognition, strategy use, knowledge etc. are all fine. n Dyslexia is not related to Intelligence n 25

3. Dyslexia: Who has it ? n Characteristics of Dyslexia n How do we

3. Dyslexia: Who has it ? n Characteristics of Dyslexia n How do we recognize a child with dyslexia 26

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2 -D learners n Have talent for language n Good at sequence and time

2 -D learners n Have talent for language n Good at sequence and time and events n Memory for abstract symbols—letters stand for something 28

3 -D learners Have a talent to make, do, draw, build Often intuitive, creative,

3 -D learners Have a talent to make, do, draw, build Often intuitive, creative, and good imagination May take up to 1500 repetitions of seeing a word or letter to remember it Do not do well with idioms “knock it off” Often seen as lazy or immature 29

Not a Single Pattern that Identifies a Student with Dyslexia n Some Reverse letters—others

Not a Single Pattern that Identifies a Student with Dyslexia n Some Reverse letters—others do not n Show related problems with spoken language— others do not n Have problems with attention—others do not n Have trouble retrieving words to recall them quickly—others do not n Have trouble with math—others are talented in math n 30

Some Have problems with organization—others do not n Appear insensitive to others—others are very

Some Have problems with organization—others do not n Appear insensitive to others—others are very sensitive n Have a low self-esteem—others do not n Have difficulty with handwriting—others do not n Have a slow rate of writing—others do not n 31

A Student with Dyslexia has a Unique Pattern Much Like Your Fingerprint Person who

A Student with Dyslexia has a Unique Pattern Much Like Your Fingerprint Person who reads well with poor Comprehension n Inaccurate reader with ok comprehension n Extremely slow reader n Strong speller and the slow reader n Adequate reader who has difficulty with all written expression including copying and spelling n One that has trouble with all of the above n 32

Activity 1: Signs of Dyslexia 1. Participants describe to each other a child they

Activity 1: Signs of Dyslexia 1. Participants describe to each other a child they know who has been diagnosed with Dyslexia n 2. Group discusses the age appropriate warning signs described in the handout n 3. Add any other signs that you have observed n 4. One member reports to all participants n 33

Warning Signs in Preschool Delayed speech; slow to add new words; difficulty finding the

Warning Signs in Preschool Delayed speech; slow to add new words; difficulty finding the right word n Mixing up sounds or syllables in long words n Poor memory for nursery rhymes n Difficulty learning colours, days of week, numbers, shapes n Difficulty learning how to spell or write name n 34

Warning Signs in K-3 Difficulty understanding n that words can be separated into parts

Warning Signs in K-3 Difficulty understanding n that words can be separated into parts (firetruck: fire and truck) n that words can be separated into sounds (tip = /t/ /ĭ/ /p/) n Difficulty learning letter names and sounds n Difficulty reading single words; relies on context clues to recognize words; Can’t remember sight words n Slow choppy, inaccurate oral reading n Difficulty with daily spelling 35

Warning Signs Grades 4 th – High School Has difficulty spelling – may use

Warning Signs Grades 4 th – High School Has difficulty spelling – may use simplified vocabulary when writing. n Continues to have reading difficulty n Lacks fluency; reads slowly; avoids oral reading n Avoids reading for pleasure n Difficulty finding the right word when speaking n Dreads going to school n 36

Effects of dyslexia reach far beyond the classroom n Self-image n Feelings of being

Effects of dyslexia reach far beyond the classroom n Self-image n Feelings of being dumb or “different” n Feeling of being less capable than they really are n Stress due to academic or social problems n Discouraged about continuing in school 37

Important to remember that n students with dyslexia can learn They just learn in

Important to remember that n students with dyslexia can learn They just learn in a different way n Not a disease or result of an accident or injury but rather it describes a kind of mind n Often gifted and productive mind that learns differently n 38

4. Dyslexia What to do about it ? n Assessment of Dyslexia 39

4. Dyslexia What to do about it ? n Assessment of Dyslexia 39

What do consider n Possible other issues / co morbidities n n n Cognitive

What do consider n Possible other issues / co morbidities n n n Cognitive Ability (Gifted / Slow Learner) (Language / Non-verbal Issues Psychological issues (ADHD / Anxiety Motivation / Self Esteem / Family Issues) n A thorough assessment is essential to determine the exact nature of the learning difference and to exclude alternative explanations for the problem n A diagnosis leads to a remediation plan and recommendations for interventions n 40

Assessment Steps Referral n Data Gathering n Testing n n. Psychological Issues n. Ability

Assessment Steps Referral n Data Gathering n Testing n n. Psychological Issues n. Ability (Language, Perceptual, Memory, Processing) n. Achievement (Reading / Maths / Listening / Language) n. Reading / Writing Behaviour n Oral Intervention Plan Formulation 41

Data Gathering Informants n Information about the student • Student’s work samples, Test Results

Data Gathering Informants n Information about the student • Student’s work samples, Test Results Reports • Teacher’s observations (Interview, Questionnaires, Informal) • Parent (Interview, Questionnaires) 42

Areas of Data Gathering n n n Vision/hearing Teacher reports Previous assessments Accommodations/ Modifications

Areas of Data Gathering n n n Vision/hearing Teacher reports Previous assessments Accommodations/ Modifications (classroom teacher) Academic progress reports n n Samples of school work Parent conferences Speech/language (previous referrals) OT, other interventions 43

Assessment Instruments Have to be valid n Culturally appropriate n Assess the specific areas

Assessment Instruments Have to be valid n Culturally appropriate n Assess the specific areas of educational need; not to provide a single general IQ n Have to accurately reflect student’s aptitude, achievement level and specific learning profile n 44

Assessment of General Issues n Psychological Questionnaires (Parents / Teachers / Students) (Achenbach System

Assessment of General Issues n Psychological Questionnaires (Parents / Teachers / Students) (Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment ASEBA) n Learning Style (Parents / Teachers / Students) Cognitive Processing Inventory (CPI) n Ability Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WISC-IV, WPPSI-III) n Achievement (Wechsler Individual Achievement Test WIAT-II) n Others depending on need 45

Literacy Specific Assessment Instruments n Reading single words in isolation n Word Decoding n

Literacy Specific Assessment Instruments n Reading single words in isolation n Word Decoding n n Wide Range Achievement Test 3 (WRAT-3) WIAT-II Word Reading WIAT-II Pseudoword Decoding Phonological Awareness n Phonological Awareness Test (PAT) 46

n Letter Knowledge n n Fluency / Rate and Accuracy: n n WIAT-II Reading

n Letter Knowledge n n Fluency / Rate and Accuracy: n n WIAT-II Reading Comprehension Spelling: n n WIAT-II Reading Fluency Reading Comprehension: n n WIAT-II Word Reading WIAT-II Spelling Orthographic Encoding / Decoding Phonetic Reading Chain Diagnostic Assessment -- Reading 47

Differential Diagnosis Good evidence for three forms of disability in reading that n co-occur

Differential Diagnosis Good evidence for three forms of disability in reading that n co-occur and n occur in isolation 1. Word recognition 2. Comprehension 3. Fluency 48

Activity 2 : CASE STUDIES n Each Group receives the assessment profile of a

Activity 2 : CASE STUDIES n Each Group receives the assessment profile of a child. n Look at the assessment profile and discuss if that child could be diagnosed with Dyslexia. n We do first Case Study together 49

SS Standard Scores Distribution n n n Very Superior Range High Average Range Low

SS Standard Scores Distribution n n n Very Superior Range High Average Range Low Average Range Borderline Range Extremely Low >130 120 -130 110 -120 90 -110 80 -90 70 -80 <70 2. 2 % of Students 6. 7 % of Students 16. 1. % of Students 50. % of Students 16. 1. % of Students 6. 7 % of Students 2. 2 % of Students 50

Case Study 1: Rania/ Year 5 WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Average WIAT-II: Listening Comprehension

Case Study 1: Rania/ Year 5 WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Average WIAT-II: Listening Comprehension Word Reading: Reading Comprehension Pseudoword Reading Spelling Alphabet: No difficulty Consonant sounds: 19/21 Short-vowel sounds: 1/5 105 77 77 67 83 Dyslexic? Yes / No Phonological Awareness: 85 Phonological Memory: 103 Rapid Naming: 91 51

Case study: Praveen Year 4 WISC-IV FSIQ Average Range WIAT-II: Word Reading: 73 Reading

Case study: Praveen Year 4 WISC-IV FSIQ Average Range WIAT-II: Word Reading: 73 Reading Comprehension 98 Listening Comprehension: 104 Pseudoword Reading 89 Spelling 75 Phonological Awareness: 85 Phonological Memory: 97 Rapid Naming: 76 Dyslexic? Yes / No Alphabet: no difficulty Consonant sounds: 19/21 Short-vowel sounds: 4/5 52

Case study: Rudy Year 5 WISC-IV FSIQ Low Average Range WIAT-II: Listening Comprehension 96

Case study: Rudy Year 5 WISC-IV FSIQ Low Average Range WIAT-II: Listening Comprehension 96 Word Reading: 103 Reading Comprehension 118 Pseudoword Reading 101 Spelling 102 Phonological Awareness: Phonological Memory: Rapid Naming: 100 88 88 Dyslexic? Yes / No Alphabet: no difficulty Consonant sounds: 20/21 Short-vowel sounds: 2/5 53

Case study: Saloni Year 5 WISC-IV Borderline Range WIAT-II: Reading Comprehension 86 Word Reading

Case study: Saloni Year 5 WISC-IV Borderline Range WIAT-II: Reading Comprehension 86 Word Reading 78 Pseudoword Decoding 82 Spelling 80 Alphabet: unable to recite or write Naming lower case letter: Consonant sounds: 25/26 18/21 Yes / No Short-vowel sounds: 5/5 Phonological Awareness: Phonological Memory: Dyslexic? 73 76 54

IMPORTANT Tests Do Not Evaluate, they give Information People Do Evaluate 55

IMPORTANT Tests Do Not Evaluate, they give Information People Do Evaluate 55

4. What to do about it ? n B Interventions 56

4. What to do about it ? n B Interventions 56

Reading Rope LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION ● Background Knowledge ● Vocabulary Knowledge ● Language Structures ●

Reading Rope LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION ● Background Knowledge ● Vocabulary Knowledge ● Language Structures ● Verbal Reasoning ● Literacy Knowledge inc r str eas ate ing gic ly SKILLED READING: fluent execution and coordination of word recognition and text comprehension. WORD RECOGNITION ● Phonological Awareness ● Decoding (and Spelling) ● Sight Recognition gly n i as atic e r inc utom a g is a multifaceted skill, gradually acquired over years of instruction and pra 57 p. 54

Principles of Interventions n Based on thorough Assessment and knowledge of learner n Measurable

Principles of Interventions n Based on thorough Assessment and knowledge of learner n Measurable goals developed after assessment n Identifies strengths n Determines the skill deficits to be addressed n Uses preferred learning modalities n Active participation of learner n Strategy based on the above 58

Major Intervention Strategies n A Multisensory Instruction n B Guided Discovery n C Mastery

Major Intervention Strategies n A Multisensory Instruction n B Guided Discovery n C Mastery Learning 59

A Multisensory Teaching Uses the Four Pathways of Learning n Auditory n Visual n

A Multisensory Teaching Uses the Four Pathways of Learning n Auditory n Visual n Kinaesthetic n Tactile 60

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Multisensory Teaching Simultaneous and alternative deployment of visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, and tactile sensory modalities

Multisensory Teaching Simultaneous and alternative deployment of visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, and tactile sensory modalities that supports the connection of oral language with visual language symbols 62

Multisensory Teaching Example: /k/ = ck Discovering a new letter-sound association by listening to

Multisensory Teaching Example: /k/ = ck Discovering a new letter-sound association by listening to words with the same sound in the final position while looking at the mouth in a mirror feeling how it’s made, seeing a list of the words and writing the new digraph. 63

n It is a systematic step- by-step approach, proceeding from the simpler to the

n It is a systematic step- by-step approach, proceeding from the simpler to the more complex in orderly progression in an upward spiral of language development. 64

What is Taught? n Phoneme and Phonological Awareness n Sound-Symbol Association n Syllable Instruction

What is Taught? n Phoneme and Phonological Awareness n Sound-Symbol Association n Syllable Instruction n Morphology n Syntax n Semantics 65

Using Multisensory Strategies Auditory • Discriminate number of sounds in spoken words • Say

Using Multisensory Strategies Auditory • Discriminate number of sounds in spoken words • Say key word and sound • Segment spoken word into syllables • Listen for base words, roots and affixes • Paraphrase sentences accurately 66

Using Multisensory Strategies VISUAL * * * Look at mouth to see mouth position

Using Multisensory Strategies VISUAL * * * Look at mouth to see mouth position Look at card with letter and key word Look at printed word to identify vowel sounds and number of syllables * Identify base words, prefixes and suffixes 67

Using Multisensory Strategies Tactile • Feel voicing airflow /th/ • Form letters with play

Using Multisensory Strategies Tactile • Feel voicing airflow /th/ • Form letters with play dough Write in sand tray • Feel sandpaper letters and words 68

Using Multisensory Strategies Kinaesthetic • Arrange letters in alphabetical order • Use tokens to

Using Multisensory Strategies Kinaesthetic • Arrange letters in alphabetical order • Use tokens to segment sounds in spoken words • Feel movement of articulatory muscles when phonemes are spoken • Build words with syllable cards 69

LESSON PLAN FORMAT n n n n n Alphabet/Phonemic Awareness Letter Sounds Review Spelling

LESSON PLAN FORMAT n n n n n Alphabet/Phonemic Awareness Letter Sounds Review Spelling Sounds Discovery of Linguistic Concept Handwriting Reading Practice Spelling Practice Review of Today’s New Learning Extended Reading/Writing Listening/Comprehension 70

Activity 3: Multisensory teaching Task: Teaching consonant blends 1. 2. 3. 4. n n

Activity 3: Multisensory teaching Task: Teaching consonant blends 1. 2. 3. 4. n n 5. n n 6. Demonstration Group teaching of blends ‘sl’, ‘br’, ‘tw’ and ‘sm’ Visual: Presenting blend printed on flash card. Auditory: Say the name of the blend , say the key word of the picture & then the sound of the blend. Student repeats the key word and the sound of the blend. Teacher says sound and student repeats Kinaesthetic: Student writes the blend, copying from the model, saying name as he/she writes it. Student writes it from memory, reads what has been written and giving the sound. Student writes blend with eyes closed – to enhance kinesthetic feed back. Tactile: Form the blend with play dough while saying it 71

B Guided Discovery n Guided discovery involves the student’s pathways of learning. n (Auditory/Visual/Kinaesthetic/Tactile)

B Guided Discovery n Guided discovery involves the student’s pathways of learning. n (Auditory/Visual/Kinaesthetic/Tactile) n Socratic questioning or “guided questioning” is leading students to the answers without telling them. n Because of the memory systems and the need to stimulate multiple modalities, the “discovery” approach to instruction is effective with dyslexic students. 72

Auditory Discovery Uses questioning techniques for auditory discovery, n linking the new to the

Auditory Discovery Uses questioning techniques for auditory discovery, n linking the new to the known, and n building on similarities or differences. n n What do you hear that is the same? 73

Visual Discovery After auditory discovery, the visual symbols representing the new concept or phoneme

Visual Discovery After auditory discovery, the visual symbols representing the new concept or phoneme are presented using questioning techniques to lead students to self-discovery. n What do you see that is the same? 74

Kinaesthetic / Tactile Discovery Skywriting / Walking Shapes/ Play dough creation of symbols n

Kinaesthetic / Tactile Discovery Skywriting / Walking Shapes/ Play dough creation of symbols n Are some of the techniques used in kinaesthetic-tactile discovery n Make, Trace & Copy letter shapes n Workbook n Spelling Notebook 75

Elements of Discovery Learning Develops natural curiosity to learn Brain Power Links new with

Elements of Discovery Learning Develops natural curiosity to learn Brain Power Links new with old knowledge Holds interest Active participate responsibility Discovery Learning Strengthens knowledge of relationships between concepts Develops ability to retrieve information Develops decisionmaking skills 76

C Mastery Model of Teaching and Learning n Uses the Following: n Prior Knowledge

C Mastery Model of Teaching and Learning n Uses the Following: n Prior Knowledge n New Learning n Review n Practice n MASTERY 77

Mastery Model of Teaching & Learning feelings concepts ideas Prior Knowledge motivations memories Di

Mastery Model of Teaching & Learning feelings concepts ideas Prior Knowledge motivations memories Di sc ov e experiences ry New Learning cumulative Review Short term memory Practice automaticity Mastery 95% 78

Introduce Review Practice 79

Introduce Review Practice 79

Mastery Model Teaching n n n Simultaneous Multisensory Instruction Guided Discovery Intense Instruction/Consistent Practice

Mastery Model Teaching n n n Simultaneous Multisensory Instruction Guided Discovery Intense Instruction/Consistent Practice Systematic and Cumulative Synthetic and Analytic n Synthetic: how letters come together to form a word n Analytic: breaking a word into smaller parts 80

n Periodic measures of progress Bench Mark Measures determine progress at each level of

n Periodic measures of progress Bench Mark Measures determine progress at each level of training n Assures teacher that student’s knowledge is secure before advancing to next level n Success on each measure serves as motivational incentive for student while encouraging selfconfidence n New learning based on well-established concepts to enable student to integrate skills systematically, successfully, and permanently n 81

Conclusion: Effective Scientific Instruction individualized multidisciplinary multisensory synthetic-analytic Systematic Cumulative Communicative 82

Conclusion: Effective Scientific Instruction individualized multidisciplinary multisensory synthetic-analytic Systematic Cumulative Communicative 82

n If instruction is planned to meet the differing needs of learners, it is

n If instruction is planned to meet the differing needs of learners, it is individualized. n If instruction is based on the knowledge and skill of experts from many fields, including education, psychology, and language theory we call it multidisciplinary. 83

n If the sounds of the letters can be blended into words for reading,

n If the sounds of the letters can be blended into words for reading, and the words can be divided into the sounds they are made of for spelling and writing then we call the process synthetic-analytic. n If instruction simultaneously uses the learning pathways of visual (seeing), auditory (hearing), and kinaesthetic (movement), tactile (touch) then it is multisensory. 84

Material is organized and taught in a way that is logical and fits the

Material is organized and taught in a way that is logical and fits the nature of our language. The procedure is systematic. n The learner moves, step by step, in order, from simple, well-learned material to that which is more and more complex, as he or she masters the necessary body of language skills. The teaching is sequential. n Each step of the way is based on those already learned. The process is cumulative. n 85

n. The ultimate goal is for a student to understand the reasons for what

n. The ultimate goal is for a student to understand the reasons for what he is learning so that he can think his way through language problems. The purpose of it all, from recognizing a letter to writing a poem, is getting meaning from one person’s mind to another’s. Communication is paramount. 86

GOOD NEWS!!!! n Good news is that students with dyslexia can be helped to

GOOD NEWS!!!! n Good news is that students with dyslexia can be helped to cope with their difficulties if their learning profile is scientifically diagnosed and if they are taught on evidence based methodologies n using multisensory teaching methods, within a discovery learning framework to mastery level of each skill n they can learn to read and write to a level appropriate to their general ability. 87

n Perhaps most important of all, with the understanding, support, and encouragement of parents

n Perhaps most important of all, with the understanding, support, and encouragement of parents and teachers they can avoid the hurt and burden of failure and frustration that affects their lives. 88