Divine Command Theory I God as the origin

Divine Command Theory I. God as the origin and regulator of morality Morality is determined by God The commands are usually found in sacred texts. Frankena ‘the standard of right and wrong is the will or law of God. ’ For example II. Right and wrong as objective truths based on God’s will Morality is not influenced by personal choices and humans have no moral authority only God William of Ockham ‘With Him a thing becomes right solely because He wants it so. ’ III. Moral goodness is achieved by complying with divine command The only way to be morally good is to follow God’s command e. g. Punishment for those who don’t and reward for those who do. Grayling (page 4) iv. Divine command as a requirement of God’s omnipotence DCT is a natural consequence of God’s omnipotence – this means God has power over everything – otherwise there would be something else more powerful v. Divine command as an objective metaphysical foundation of morality Objective – moral facts Metaphysical – what lies beyond the physical world – not testable

Robert Adams – Check your chunk 1. God is all-loving – based on the assumption that God loves humanity. ‘Any action is ethically wrong if and only if it is contrary to the commands of a loving God’. 2. So evil deeds can never be good Some actions and perhaps intentions and individual possess the property of ethical wrongness – if contrary to the commands of a loving God 3. Action is wrong if it goes against the commands of a loving God is a necessary truth – rather than being on contingent truth (this is a stronger claim as contingent truths are dependent on other things) It aims to solve the problems of the Euthyphro Dilemma 4. Horn 1 – if an action is only right as God commands it, then morality becomes arbitrary Adam’s modified DCT avoids this problem as morality is not just based on the commands of God but is rooted in God’s unchanging omnibenevolence. So, morality is not arbitrary, nor could God command cruelty. It would not be possible for an omnibenevolent God to command cruelty. Horn 2 – there is a separate standard of goodness. God is the source of morality as morality originates from the character of God. Moral law is a feature of God’s nature

Virtue Theory- Introduction Aristotle – pupil of Plato Overview Key scholars for virtue ethics Define with examples what is meant by the term virtue

Key terms recap Discuss a definition for. . . 1. Objective 2. Absolutist 3. Moral decision making based on consequences is called ________ or ______________ 4. Modified

Virtue Theory Time to check your knowledge 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What is a virtue? How do we develop virtues? What is Eudaimonia? What is the Golden mean? Give an example of a virtue that achieves the Golden mean. What are the Beatitudes? Where could we find Jesus’ teaching on the Beatitudes? Why do some people believe it is compatible with virtue theory? ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________

Context • 4 th Century B. C • Athens – Capital of Ancient Greece

Virtue Theory – Key ideas • Places it’s emphasis on ‘practise’ and ‘habit’ as opposed to laws written in human nature or universal norm • Focuses on the agent (person)and not the act • Focuses on how we are good people • Appreciates the room for cultural relativity • Aims to help humans and societies reach eudaimonia

What is a virtue? Or vice? A quality considered morally good or desirable in a person. E. g. Patience is a. . . Can you think of any other examples? What is a vice? Can you think of any examples?

An example of virtue theory in practice Lying (alternative truth!) What would deontologist say about lying? What would a teleologist say about lying? A follower of virtue theory would claim. . .

The Golden Mean Look at the examples on page 21 • Courage – better than an excess or a lack • Can you think of your own examples where you have applied the Golden mean in your own lives? The Golden mean produces three types of people 1. Sophron – naturally lives in the mean without effort 2. Enkrates – who is tempted but has enough will power to live in the mean 3. Akrates – a weak person who cannot live in the mean

Moral and intellectual virtues Moral virtues – through habit You do not need to know them all Intellectual virtues – through education 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 1. Intelligent or insight 2. Scientific knowledge by demonstration or conclusion 3. Wisdom 4. Artistic endeavour through the guidance of reason 5. Prudence i. e. common sense Courage Temperance Liberality Generosity Pride Right ambition Patience Truthfulness Wittiness Friendliness Modesty Righteous indignation Justice – an outcome of virtuous behaviour

Four key (cardinal) virtues Write a definition of each term in your own words Temperance – Courage Justice Wisdom

Starter task Role models Nelson Mandala – Invictus example Use the link on the website • Nelson Mandala Invictus What character traits typified Nelson Mandela? What is your philosophy of leadership? How does this relate to character and the virtues? How could others develop these virtues?

Jesus’ teaching on virtues There is a long history of encouraging virtues in the Christian tradition, much of it can be traced back to the Old Testament. Although Christianity is often thought of as having many rules and commandments in the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5 -7) Jesus promotes inward qualities or virtues. Life of Brian

The Sermon on the Mount • Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted. Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth. Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they shall be filled. Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God. Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called the children of God. Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness' sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.

Jesus’ virtues and explanations Virtue Meaning – sincerity, weakness, reward, selfish, God, world, Kingdom, virtuous disposition , moral, Poor in spirit Understood to mean poverty in relation to the whole person. ; physical, mental and spiritual. For example those who are _____, enslaved, have their rights taken from them. Such people are humble before God. This also incorporates those who are ‘poor in spirit’ through an awareness of their own insignificance, hopelessness and helplessness before God. Mourning Not just mourning for loss of a loved one but loss of a connection to _____. It is also mourning for the state of the ____ in general. Meek Psalm 37: 11 ‘The meek will possess the land’. Meekness is not a ______ but more a description of disciple and ___ - _____ exhibiting a gentle disposition to others, Hungry and thirsty for righteousness It has be interpreted to mean a desire for the virtuous outcome of _____ in life in relation to the Kingdom of God. It can also be understood to depict the virtue of seeking righteousness or justice in a personal, spiritual, social or global sense. Mercy Through humility and an awareness of God’s mercy, Christians are encouraged to display mercy to others, not because it brings the ______ of God’s mercy, but because it is a ____________ in itself. Pure in heart Often understood as _________ of character that wills and determines the correct choices and decisions in life without the contamination of _____ drives. Peacemakers Traditionally ascribed to the role of the _____, those who follow suit and work for peace in a world of conflict truly appreciate the nature of God’s _______. Persecuted for the sake of righteousness Such character displays a willingness to suffer for religious and _____ principles but simultaneously display an underlying determination to survive and stand up for what is right despite the obstacles. Messiah, oppressed, self – control, justice

Virtues are not a practical guide Issues of cultural relativism to moral behaviour Virtues can be used for immoral acts Action guiding Deontological and teleological What is cultural relativism? theories are better as they are. . . What did the ancient thinkers believe about virtuous people? The Divine Command Theory Give two examples of cultural relativism. How can this view be challenged today? Virtue Theory give no. . . How can cultural relativism be Give examples e. g. criminals used to challenge Virtue Theory? AO 2—Response to this criticism AO 2—responses to this criticsm

Evaluating Virtue Theory Strengths Weaknesses Virtue Theory concentrate on developing a person’s virtues and reducing their vices. This, according to Virtue Theorists, would automatically make the person become a ‘good’ person. This is because a person of good character would automatically do good actions. Issues of cultural relativism (ideas on the good virtues are not universal) Virtue Theory regards human relationships as important and stresses the need to look after those close to you. Virtues are not a practical guide to moral behaviour. Aristotle reasoned that virtues help moral agents to be a successful member of their community (which Aristotle believed would bring them happiness / eudiamonia). Virtues can be used for immoral acts:

AO 1/2 To what extent is Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean a doctrine of moderation? The Golden Mean is not easy to apply to all virtues. For instance, whilst courage is a mean between cowardice and foolhardiness, is there always a mean virtue? Aristotle seems to recommend that we always strive to feel neither too much nor too little but rather the moderate amount: hence a little fear but not too much, a little pleasure but not too much, a little anger but not too much. Does this work in all situations? But there are some situations embodying injustice, which should provoke extreme anger in us, just as there are situations which rightly prompt us to feel extreme fear. The doctrine of the mean involves more than quantity. The mean, the intermediate, is a matter of having feelings of anger, pity, confidence (and so on) "at the right times, about the right things, towards the right people, for the right end, and in the right way“ How did Aristotle believe humans could be truly virtuous? The truly virtuous person, however, is not just the one who achieves the relative mean in her feelings and actions. She must also receive pleasure in doing so. A person, who finds it painful to stand firm in terrifying situations, even if she succeeds in doing so, is nevertheless cowardly. Thus acting virtuously is something that must be done, as it were, in the right spirit.

AO 1/2 Criticisms of Aristotle’s View Aristotle’s theory has had many criticisms levelled at it over the centuries. The other major criticisms are: • Aristotle gives no guidance in situations where virtues conflict and where people need rules to guide their actions – not action guiding. • The virtues valued by Aristotle are mainly masculine ones such as bravery and honour. Little credit is given to feminine virtues such as humility and empathy. – Can you evaluate this? • It produces a selfish theory, which places greater emphasis on personal development than the effect that a person’s actions may have on others.

AO 1 Virtue Theory - Developing Skills Explain Virtue Theory – Aristotle and Jesus A focus on outlining the challenges to virtue theory – inc. teleological and deontological Virtue theory is a not _____ or _____ It focuses on ______ Virtues are ______ We can be virtuous by ____ Virtue theory is an ethical system based on _____. It can be challenged in three key ways It is not a practical guide to moral behaviour Aristotle identified the Golden ___ He divided virtues into _______ and intellectual. They include _____ Christianity is often seen as a rule based ethical system. However in the _____ on the Mount Jesus ____ It can also be challenged for highlighting the issue of cultural relativism Additionally, virtues could be used for immoral acts. . . Finally, other challenges include. .

Virtue Theory Aristotle – moral virtues 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. C Temperance Liberality G Pride Right a P Truthfulness W F M Righteous i Jesus’ virtues P_______ in ________ M_______ H_________ for _____ M_____ P_____ __ ________ P__________ _______

AO 2 Whether being a good person is better than just doing good deeds. Whether virtue theory is useful when face with a moral dilemma 1. Definition of a moral dilemma and link to virtue theory 1. Challenge to traditional views 2. Beatitudes not useful 2. Problems with following rules 3. Aristotle’s virtues not useful 3. Advantages of following rules 4. Developing virtues is better 4. Focusing on virtues and having not rules is confusing However, 5. It can work with other Christian moral teachings 5. The importance of role models 6. It focuses on the wellbeing of others – altruism 6. Summary of problem 7. Aquinas 8. Role models 7. Conclusion

Key terms Link words together • Aristotle, Intellectual, telos, Sermon on the mount, Moral, Eudaimonia, Agent-centred, Beatitudes, Role models, good life, Martin Luther King, Vices, Virtues, Sophron, Akrates, Enkrates, 4 key virtues, blessed are the meek, poor in spirit, hunger for righteousness, pure of heart, Golden mean