Discourse Analysis presented to Madam Rabia Akram by

Discourse Analysis presented to Madam Rabia Akram by Syed Ali Tahir Muhammad Ismail Riaz Hussain Muhammad Nasir Muhammad Ali Khan

• • • Overview What is Discourse Analysis? The origin of the term “Discourse Analysis” Importance of Discourse Analysis Difference between text and discourse Textual functions Cohesion and Coherence Cohesive Devices Interpersonal functions Conventions of conversations like turn-taking Co-operative principle Background knowledge

DA and Zelling Harris The term discourse analysis was first employed by Zelling Harris as the name for ‘a method for the analysis of the connected speech or writing for continuing descriptive linguistics beyond the limit of a single sentece at a time and for correlating culture and language’ ( Harris 1952)

The meanings of discourse • The word discourse is an elastic term, • The word discourse has a complex history. It is used in a range of different ways by different theorists. • Originally the word ‘discourse’ comes from Latin, ‘discursus’ which denoted ‘conversations’, ‘speech’. • As a noun it can mean verbal communication, talk, formal speech or writing on a subject and a unit of text used by linguists for the analysis of linguistic phenomena that range over more than one sentence

Definition of Discourse Analysis • Discourse analysis is the study of how stretches of language used in communication assume meaning, purpose and unity for their users: the quality of coherence (Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics by Keith Johnson and Helen Johnson, 1998)

Two domains of language • TEXT/ SENTENCE • Text is a message coded in auditory or visual medium • Essays, notices, road signs etc • DISCOURSE • Interpersonal activity/ transaction between speaker and hearer • Written as well as spoken • Interviews, commentaries, speeches, etc

Difference between Text and Discourse • According to David Crystal Discourse analysis focuses on the structure of naturally o • ccuring spoken language, as found in such ‘discourses’ as conversations, interviews, commentaries and speeches. • Text analysis focuses on the structure of written language, as found in such ‘texts’ as essays, notices, road signs and chapters. • According to Geoffery Leech and Michael Short; ‘’discourse’’ is linguistic communication seen as transaction between speaker and hearer, as an interpersonal activity whose form is determined by its ‘’social purpose’’.

What do we do in Discourse Analysis? • We analyze and investigate all those features of that are part of the total communicative act: context of utterance, relationships, mode of discourse and so on • Conversational behavior is observed • Conventions of conversation (turn-taking) • Strategies for beginning and ending a conversation • How topics appear and disappear • How different speech acts (e. g. politeness) are performed • To establish underlying norms of conversation

Agenda of Discourse Analysis • To establish underlying norms of conversation that people implicitly follow by • Conversational behavior is observed • Conventions of conversation turn-taking) • Strategies for beginning and ending a conversation • How topics appear and disappear • How different speech acts (e. g. politeness) are performed

Two main areas of DA • It is centrally occupied with two main linguistic functions: • The interpersonal • Textual

Linguistic functions of DA • Interpersonal • Textual • Because it focuses on the way in which we use language as a means of interacting with others • Because it also focuses on our ability to construct coherent/cohesive texts. • Texts can be written or spoken

Importance of Discourse Analysis • Since it has a large agenda, it continues to have a wide appeal • Language is irreducible part of social life • In speech behavior not only linguists but sociologists, anthropologists and psychologists are also interested. • DA is helpful in other forms of analysis like ethnography( the study of races of people)

Coherence and cohesion Textual function

Difference between Cohesion and Coherence • Cohesion in a text comes from the rules of sentence connection. • Coherence means the degree to which a piece of discourse makes sense. • The following is an example of both cohesion and coherence. • A : Can you go to Lahore tomorrow? • B: Yes, I can. • In this example second sentence is linked with first in sequential order. This is cohesion. It is also coherent because B has given an appropriate response to A.

Example of coherence • In the following example the aforementioned concept will be more clear. • A: Can you go to Lahore tomorrow? • B: there is a general strike. • Thus two sentences are not cohesive because the second sentence is not linked to the first sentence in a grammatical sense. There is no repetition or obvious connection between the two sentences.

Cohesive Devices • Pronouns or Substitution: In order to avoid repeating the same words several times in one paragraph it is replaced, most often by one, do or so. • Ellipsis: It is very similar to substitution, however, it replaces a phrase by a gap. (Omission of noun, verb, or a clause on the assumption) • Conjunctions: Specifies the relationship between clauses or sentences. Most frequent relations of sentences are: addition (and, moreover), temporality (afterwards, next) and causality (because, or since). • Reference: The use of words which do not have meanings of their own, such as pronouns and articles. • Lexical cohesion: Denotes links between words which carry meanings: verbs, nouns, adjectives. There are two types of lexical cohesion namely reiteration and collocation.

Conversational Interaction The underlying rules of conversation that people implicitly follow (Interpersonal function)

Conversational interaction • Conversation is an activity where two or more people take turns at speaking. A interaction B

How ‘B’ comes to know that its his or her turn? • • Signaling of completion point( by the speaker) Ways of signaling completion point 1. by asking a question 2. by giving a pause at the end of sentence. • • Signaling by the listener to say something. 1. B. starts to make short sounds while A is talking. 2. Body shifts. 3. Facial expressions.

Strategies of conversational interaction. • Normal expectations • Completion points are marked by the end of a sentence and a pause. • 1. One way to keep the turn is to avoid having those two indicators occur together. • 2. Make your sentences run on by using connectors such as and, and then, so, but • 3. Place your pauses at points where the message is clearly incomplete. • 4. Preferably fill the pauses with hesitation markers such as ‘err’ ‘en; ‘un’ um’

Example • A: that’s their favorite restaurant because they…. In France they couldn’t believe it that…. you know that they had…. that they had better meals back home. • Note: Pauses are placed before or after verbs rather than at the end of the sentences.

Example • X: I mean his other…. . em his later films were much more…. er really more in the romantic style and tht was more what he was…. you know…em best at doing.

Note of Caution. • These strategies should not be considered undesirable. • These are a part of daily conversation. • These make conversation work. • These strategies make possible a non-cooperative discourse.

Co-operative principle Interpersonal function

Co-operative principle • The underlying in most conversational exchanges assumption seems to be that the participants are in fact cooperating with each other • Meaningful communication takes place where people are cooperative • It is certainly true that, on some occasions, we can experience conversational exchanges in which the cooperative principle does not seem to be in operation but in most cases this principle is observed

Supportive maxims of co-operative principle • 1. quantity (the right required amount of information) • 2. quality (say true no false) • 3. Relation (be relevant) • 4. Clarity (avoid obscurity, be brief and orderly) • Conversational implicature • When someone violates any of the maxims, implied meaning arise

Example • A. Where is my box of chocolate? • B. the children were in your room, this morning. • B violates the maxims of relation because reply is not relevant to A’s question. It implies that children may have taken the chocolate.

Background Knowledge Interpersonal function

Background knowledge • Schema • Script

Activity of background knowledge Bashir was on his way to school. He was worried about the math lesson. Last weak he had been unable to control the class. It was unfair of the math teacher for leave him incharge. • After all, it is not a normal part of a clerk’s duties • •

Thank You