Discourse Analysis Functions of Language Ahmad Bilal Functions

Discourse Analysis Functions of Language Ahmad Bilal

Functions of Language � Using a language as a primary means of communicating our thoughts is so natural for many people that it is often difficult to realize what in fact are language functions. Some of the roles of language are so mundane that they are hardly ever noticed, others are very elevated, or even abstract. Due to their diversity the functions of language might be divided into two categories: � micro functions which refer to specific individual uses, and � macro functions which serve more overall aims.

MICRO FUNCTIONS � Physiological function (releasing physical and nervous energy) � Although it might be striking this use of language is fairly common. It is easily recognizable when devoted fans of sports are observed while watching their favourite discipline on TV. Such fans often shout instructions, express support, or disappointment and while as a means of communicating with sportsmen they are useless, such cheers are to release repressed energy. Similarly curse words are used to serve this purpose, as they rarely convey any meaning and are only to make the speaker feel better.

MICRO FUNCTIONS � Phatic � The function (for sociability) use of such phrases as ‘nice day today’, or ‘how do you do’ is characterized by lack of any informative content and is intended to link people and make the coexistence peaceful and pleasant. The phatic use of language is characteristic mainly of speech, however, in certain types of writing it can also be noticed, as in letters for example, where the beginning Dear Sir/Madam and ending Yours faithfully also serve that purpose.

MICRO FUNCTIONS � Recording function denotes using language to make a durable record of things that ought to be remembered. Owing to its omnipresence writing is probably the most significant function of language. There is evidence that the first writing system was developed in the Middle East as early as 4000 BC. At the beginning writing systems took forms of pictures representing the things they referred to, gradually developing into the alphabets in their present forms.

MICRO FUNCTIONS � Identifying function � Language is used also to identify the objects and events in the world we live in. Without this function language would be almost useless, as it is thanks to the names of things that we know what is talked about. Many primitive societies unable to write believe that names hold great power. Even in western culture names are thought to be immensely important: the God’s name ought not to be used in vain, before giving a name to a newborn child parents consider the choice deeply. We use names to classify different types of things, whether we call a car an automobile, a lorry, a van or a truck makes a big difference.

MICRO FUNCTIONS � Reasoning � Before function (instrument of thought) we say something we think and to do that we necessarily use language. In most cases it is extremely difficult to think about anything without any use of words. In fact is it also difficult not to think for a longer period of time as human brains work all the time processing information, thus providing us with concepts formulated by means of language.

MICRO FUNCTIONS � Communicating � This function would probably be pointed at by most language users without major consideration. Indeed it is in all likelihood most commonly used language function by majority of speakers. Requesting, apologizing, informing, ordering as well as promising and refusing are all reasons for communicating our ideas.

MICRO FUNCTIONS � Pleasure � The functions fact that language often gives pleasure both to the speakers and listeners is not only supported by the frequent use of assonance, alliteration and onomatopoeia in poetry. Depending on the sounds of languages some are perceived as being mild as English for example, others crude as German. People also derive pleasure from unusual use of syntactic rules, as well as novelties of meanings juxtapositions and language games, which is often used by skilful writers.

MACRO FUNCTIONS � Ideational function: Ideational function refers to the conceptualizing process involved in our mental activities. Thanks to language we are able to understand what happens around us. � Interpersonal function: Interpersonal function emphasizes that language is mainly a social phenomenon, but apart from enabling communication with other people it enables to project the speaker in the desired way and to represent the speaker.

MACRO FUNCTIONS � Poetic function: Here, the word poetic does not refer to the ability to write poetry, but the ability to manipulate language in a creative way. With the use of jokes and metaphors we can play with words and meanings simply for joy. � Textual function: Textual competence refers to our ability to create long utterances or pieces of writing which are both cohesive and coherent. Unlike animals people, by use of certain linguistic devices, are able to produce long sentences and text, and not only simple phrases.

Halliday’s � Halliday (1975) identifies seven functions that language has for children in their early years. For Halliday, children are motivated to develop language because it serves certain purposes or functions for them. The first four functions help the child to satisfy physical, emotional and social needs. Halliday calls them instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal functions.

Halliday’s � Instrumental: This is when the child uses language to express their needs (e. g. 'Want juice') � Regulatory: This is where language is used to tell others what to do (e. g. 'Go away') � Interactional: Here language is used to make contact with others and form relationships (e. g. 'Love you, mummy') � Personal: This is the use of language to express feelings, opinions, and individual identity (e. g. 'Me good girl')

Halliday’s � The next three functions are heuristic, imaginative, and representational, all helping the child to come to terms with his or her environment. � Heuristic: This is when language is used to gain knowledge about the environment (e. g. 'What the tractor doing? ') � Imaginative: Here language is used to tell stories and jokes, and to create an imaginary environment. � Representational: The use of language to convey facts and information.

Halliday’s Metafunctions � From early on in his account of language, Halliday has argued that it is inherently functional. His early papers on the grammar of English make reference to the "functional components" of language, as "generalized uses of language, which, since they seem to determine the nature of the language system, require to be incorporated into our account of that system. "

Halliday’s Metafunctions � Halliday argues that this functional organization of language "determines the form taken by grammatical structure“. Halliday refers to his functions of language as metafunctions. He proposes three general functions: �the ideational, �the interpersonal and �the textual.

Halliday’s Metafunctions � Ideational � The metafunction ideational metafunction is the function for construing human experience. It is the means by which we make sense of "reality”. Halliday divides the ideational function into two functions: the logical and the experiential metafunctions. The logical metafunction refers to the grammatical resources for building up grammatical units into complexes, for instance, for combining two or more clauses into a clause complex.

Halliday’s Metafunctions � Ideational � The metafunction experiential function refers to the grammatical resources involved in construing the flux of experience through the unit of the clause. � The ideational metafunction reflects the contextual value of "field", that is, the nature of the social process in which the language is implicated.

Halliday’s Metafunctions � Ideational � An metafunction analysis of a text from the perspective of the ideational function involves inquiring into the choices in the grammatical system of "transitivity": that is, process types, participant types, circumstance types, combined with an analysis of the resources through which clauses are combined together. Halliday's An Introduction to Functional Grammar (third edition) sets out the description of these grammatical systems.

Halliday’s Metafunctions � Interpersonal metafunction � The interpersonal metafunction relates to a text's aspects of “tenor” or interactivity. Like field, tenor comprises three component areas: the speaker/writer persona, social distance, and relative social status. Social distance and relative social status are applicable only to spoken texts. Note - this is not so, looking at the text of O´Halloran we are told that we no longer have the option to contrast the various speakers but we can examine "how the individual authors present themselves to the reader", therefore, we are able to look at social distance and relative social status in texts where there is only one author.

Halliday’s Metafunctions � Interpersonal � The metafunction speaker/writer persona concerns the stance, personalisation and standing of the speaker or writer. This involves looking at whether the writer or speaker has a neutral attitude, which can be seen through the use of positive or negative language. Social distance means how close the speakers are, e. g. how the use of nicknames shows the degree to which they are intimate.

Halliday’s Metafunctions � Interpersonal � Relative metafunction social status asks whether they are equal in terms of power and knowledge on a subject, for example, the relationship between a mother and child would be considered unequal. Focuses here are on speech acts (e. g. whether one person tends to ask questions and the other speaker tends to answer), who chooses the topic, turn management, and how capable both speakers are of evaluating the subject.

Halliday’s Metafunctions � Textual metafunction � The textual metafunction relates to mode; the internal organisation and communicative nature of a text. This comprises textual interactivity, spontaneity and communicative distance. � Textual interactivity is examined with reference to disfluencies such as hesitators, pauses and repetitions. � Spontaneity is determined through a focus on lexical density, grammatical complexity, coordination (how clauses are linked together) and the use of nominal groups. The study of communicative distance involves looking at a text’s cohesion—that is, how it hangs together, as well as any abstract language it uses.

Halliday’s Metafunctions � The ANALYSIS of CONTEXT is broken down into FIELD, TENOR, AND MODE, which collectively constitute the "register" of a text � Field: what is happening, the nature of the social interaction taking place: what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which language figures as an essential component? � Tenor: who is taking part; the social roles and relationships of participant, the status and roles of the participants � Mode: the symbolic organization of the text, rhetorical modes (persuasive, expository, didactic, etc); the channel of communication, such as spoken/written, monologic/dialogic, +/- visual contact, computermediated communication/telephone/F 2 F, etc.

Halliday’s Metafunctions � Cohesion is analysed in the context of both lexical and grammatical as well as intonational aspects with reference to lexical chains and, in the speech register, tonality, tonicity, and tone. The lexical aspect focuses on sense relations and lexical repetitions, while the grammatical aspect looks at repetition of meaning shown through reference, substitution and ellipsis, as well as the role of linking adverbials. � Systemic functional grammar deals with all of these areas of meaning equally within the grammatical system itself.

Jacobson’s � According to Jakobson, any act of verbal communication is composed of six elements, or factors (the terms of the model): (1) a context (the co-text, that is, the other verbal signs in the same message, and the world in which the message takes place), (2) an addresser (a sender, or enunciator ), (3) an addressee (a receiver, or enunciatee), (4) a contact between an addresser and addressee, (5) a common code and (6) a message.

Jacobson’s � The Referential Function corresponds to the factor of Context and describes a situation, object or mental state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite descriptions and deictic words, e. g. "The autumn leaves have all fallen now. " � The Expressive (alternatively called "emotive" or "affective") Function relates to the Addresser and is best exemplified by interjections and other sound changes that do not alter the denotative meaning of an utterance but do add information about the Addresser's (speaker's) internal state, e. g. "Wow, what a view!"

Jacobson’s � The Conative Function engages the Addressee directly and is best illustrated by vocatives and imperatives, e. g. "Tom! Come inside and eat!" � The Poetic Function focuses on "the message for its own sake" and is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans. � The Phatic Function is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore associated with the Contact factor. The Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and casual discussions of the weather, particularly with strangers. � The Metalingual (alternatively called "metalinguistic" or "reflexive") Function is the use of language (what Jakobson calls "Code") to discuss or describe itself.

Jacobson’s � Several competing names have been proposed for the "same" factors and functions. (A different name often indicates, insists on, reveals, hides, or even results in an important conceptual difference. ) Some other names for the factors are (numbers refer to the table above): 1. referent, 2. sender or enunciator, 3. receiver or enunciatee, 4. channel.

Jacobson’s � Some other names for the functions are: 1. denotative, cognitive, representative, informative, 2. expressive, 3. appellative, imperative, directive, 4. relational or contact, 5. metasemiotic (in order to extend the function to any semiotic act, such as an image), 6. aesthetic or rhetorical.

The informative, expressive, and directive purposes of language � I. Three Basic Functions are generally noted: there is perhaps nothing more subtle than language is, and nothing has as many different uses. � A. Without a doubt, identifying just these three basic functions is an oversimplification, but an awareness of these functions is a good introduction to the complexity of language. � B. The Functions of Language (i. e. , its purpose; what it does; its uses)

The informative, expressive, and directive purposes of language � 1. Informative language function: essentially, the communication of information. a. The informative function affirms or denies propositions, as in science or the statement of a fact. . b. This function is used to describe the world or reason about it (e. g. . , whether a state of affairs has occurred or not or what might have led to it). c. These sentences have a truth value; that is, the sentences are either true or false (recognizing, of course, that we might not know what truth value is). Hence, they are important for logic.

The informative, expressive, and directive purposes of language � 2. Expressive language function: reports feelings or attitudes of the writer (or speaker), or of the subject, or evokes feelings in the reader (or listener). � a. Poetry and literature among the best examples, but much of, perhaps most of, ordinary language discourse is the expression of emotions, feelings or attitudes. � b. Two main aspects of this function are generally noted: (1) evoking certain feelings and (2) expressing feelings.

The informative, expressive, and directive purposes of language � c. Expressive discourse, qua expressive discourse, is best regarded as neither true or false. E. g. , Shakespeare's King Lear's lament, "Ripeness is all!" or Dickens' "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom; it was the age of foolishness…" Even so, the "logic" of "fictional statements" is an interesting area of inquiry.

The informative, expressive, and directive purposes of language � 3. Directive language function: language used for the purpose of causing (or preventing) overt action. � a. The directive function is most commonly found in commands and requests. � b. Directive language is not normally considered true or false (although various logics of commands have been developed). � c. Example of this function: "Close the windows. " The sentence "You're smoking in a nonsmoking area, " although declarative, can be used to mean "Do not smoke in this area. "