Diploma in Aviation Medicine Human Performance Revision June

Diploma in Aviation Medicine: Human Performance Revision June 11 Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Objectives of Aviation Psychology • to enhance flight safety • to improve effectiveness Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Why is There Interest in Human Performance in Aviation? • Aviation is a safety-critical operation • Aircrew are subjected to many sources of stress • High levels of human performance must be achieved (e. g. , fast jet pilots) • Human error is heavily implicated in aviation accidents Downloaded from www. avhf. com

The Human in the Aviation System Equipment & tasks Environment Human operator Other personnel Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Content of Human Performance Module General Principles • Introduction to Human Performance Module • Fundamentals of Human Performance • Individual Differences • Social Psychology and Aviation • A small amount of basic theory to help you to interpret the practical studies Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Content of Human Performance Module New this year! • An early session on human error • …to provide a context for the module Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Content of Human Performance Module Personal & Environmental Factors < Stress & Workload in Aviation II < Perceptual Issues in Aviation < Situation Awareness < Selection of Aviation Personnel Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Content of Human Performance Module Training and Simulation < Simulation and Training < Fundamentals of CRM Training < Practical Aspects of CRM & LOFT Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Content of Human Performance Module Systems Factors < Aviation Ergonomics II Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Content of Human Performance Module The Human Factor in Aviation Accidents <Seminar: Flight Safety – Prof Peter Jorna, former head of division at NLR Amsterdam Also an accident module at Henlow, providing a context for this module See also lectures on Sleep, Fatigue and Shift-Working Downloaded from www. avhf. com

The Human in the Aviation System: Relevance of Module Topics Equipment & tasks Environment Human operator Selection Individual Differences Other personnel Downloaded from www. avhf. com

The Human in the Aviation System: Relevance of Module Topics Ergonomics Equipment & tasks Environment Workload Technical Training Human operator Other personnel Downloaded from www. avhf. com

The Human in the Aviation System: Relevance of Module Topics Equipment & tasks Environment Perception Human operator Other personnel Downloaded from www. avhf. com Stress

The Human in the Aviation System: Relevance of Module Topics Equipment & tasks Environment Human operator CRM Training Other personnel Downloaded from www. avhf. com

The Human in the Aviation System: Relevance of Module Topics Equipment & tasks Environment ‘Situation Human Awareness’ operator and ‘Human Error’ encompass all these interactions Other personnel Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Human Information Processing Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Cognition Processes involved in the input, storage, transformation, and output of information by humans Main topics: • Memory • Attention • Skills Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Memory Three major memory systems: • Sensory memory • Short-term memory • Long-term memory Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Summary of properties of memory systems (inferred from classic experiments on memory) learn this! Sensory Short-term Long-term Capacity High 7 2 chunks no known limit Duration 1 sec 10 -15 sec permanent? Type of storage Physical characteristics acoustic semantic Nature of retrieval parallel serial hierarchy? Nature of forgetting decay/masking interference failure of retrieval Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Attention Selective attention: attend to one of several competing sources of information Divided attention: attempt to attend to more than one information source or task at the same time Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Shadowing task Can detect physical changes on the unattended channel, but not semantic content Dichotic listening task Performance very poor Subjects tended to organise their recall by ear, not by recency of presentation Led Broadbent to propose Filter Theory. But, later shown that • subjects tend to hear their own name on the unattended channel • subjects tend to follow the message, even if it switches ears • hence, there is semantic processing on the unattended channel However, we can assume that recognition of unattended information is less likely than recognition of attended material Make sure that you understand this! Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Divided attention Key question: Does man have a single information-processing channel (all tasks compete for the same ‘resources’ or ‘capacity’) or specialised resources for particular types of activity? (tasks performed concurrently compete only if they draw upon the same resources) Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Some support for the multiple resource theory: often, the degree of task interference depends upon the similarity of the tasks But: sometimes tasks that are dissimilar are found to interfere Baddeley’s working memory model is a compromise between extreme single-channel and multiple-resource views Visuo-spatial scratchpad Central Executive Articulatory loop Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Skills (obviously relevant to training lectures!) Characteristics • typically a sequence of activities • goal-directed behaviour • use of feedback Skill acquisition Three phases are sometimes distinguished: • Early or cognitive phase • Intermediate or associative phase • Final or autonomous phase In the final phase, behaviour becomes automatic; delegated to the control of ‘motor programs’ that do not require conscious attention and do not place heavy demands for mental resources Many everyday errors (actions not as planned) are associated with overlearned behaviour These errors involve well-practised behaviour, but are inappropriate Some aircrew errors are of this type Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Issues in skill acquisition • Whole versus part learning • Massed versus spaced learning • Transfer of training very important aspect of simulator-based training Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Individual Differences Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Two major types of individual difference covered: l Intelligence/ability/aptitude l Personality Factor Analysis: make sure that you have a good intuitive grasp of this: you don’t need to know the underlying mathematics! l l Basic psychometric criteria Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Intelligence/ability/aptitude These are the key issues l Intelligence: Innate or learned? l Intelligence: How many abilities? • There is evidence for a general ability factor • However, specific abilities also appear to exist l Intelligence: The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) l Aptitudes l Test Fairness l Intelligence: Are IQ tests valid? Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Personality key issues l Types of personality test: Interview (not reliable) l Projective tests l Personality questionnaires l (discussed examples of each) l l Is there a ‘pilot personality’? l Does personality influence success in flying training? l Is there an ‘accident-prone’ personality’? Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Social Psychology Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Types of social influence (can use this info for CRM questions) Compliance: behaviour consistent with direct request • foot-in-the-door phenomenon • door-in-the-face phenomenon Conformity: behaviour consistent with group norms • size of group (up to about four) • attractiveness and status of group members • Informational influence (trusting others’ judgements) and normative influence (seeking group acceptance) Obedience to authority • Milgram experiment • 62. 5% of the 40 subjects administered shocks to the highest level • factors affecting obedience, such as status of experimenter, proximity to ‘student’ Think about how this applies to small groups of interest to us, such as flight crew or teams of maintenance engineers Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Group Decision Making: Polarisation • Was thought that group decision making was more risky than individual DM (‘risky shift’) — but became apparent that there is a shift in the direction of the pole that, on average, the group favours as individuals (polarisation) • Stoner’s experiments • Normative and informational influences produce group polarisation Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Group Decision Making: Groupthink • • • Work of Janis. Based on real-life examples such as Bay of Pigs (or, more recently, UK MPs’ expenses!) Desire for consensus overrides group members’ motivation to assess risk and consider alternative courses of action Groupthink occurs under the following conditions: • • • High cohesiveness of the group Uncertainty of approval Insulation of the group Directive leadership High stress situations Symptoms include • • • Illusion of invulnerability Stereotypes of out-group ‘Mindguards’ Direct pressure on dissenters Collective rationalisation Effects on decision making: • • Incomplete survey of alternatives Incomplete survey of objectives Incomplete analysis of risks associated with course of action No contingency plans Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM) • Work of Jensen: decision error is cause of most fatal aviation accidents; argued that decision making can be improved through training • • Decisions have two components: • • Rational judgement (‘Headwork’) Motivational judgement (‘Attitudes’) Hazardous attitudes: • • • Anti-authority Resignation Impulsivity Invulnerability Macho ADM courses aim to provide: • • • Ability to recognise hazardous attitudes Knowledge of effects of these attitudes Skills to overcome the effects Methods • • • Self assessment tools Examination of case studies Practical Exercises Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Perceptual Issues in Aviation Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Perception is the process of acquiring, selecting, and organising sensory information The most important perceptual processes for aviation are those associated with vision and hearing 1 The ear and the auditory system – balance and the vestibular system – localisation of sound and identification of source 2 The visual system – bottom-up processing – top-down processing – cues to depth perception Downloaded from www. avhf. com

The ear and the auditory system The ear serves two main functions: < Balance. The vestibular system of the inner ear detects angular and linear accelerations of the head < Hearing. To detect sounds, to determine the location of their sources and to recognise the identity of these sources Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Balance and the vestibular system Practical implications With regard to the otolith, the weight force in a climbing aircraft operates similarly to the resultant force in an accelerating aircraft. Without visual feedback, pilots can mistake acceleration for pitch. Ascending aircraft Accelerating aircraft Weight force Inertia force Resultant The situation is aggravated if the pilot attempts to compensate for an incorrect percept. Although feedback from the vestibular system can be compelling, a pilot needs to learn to trust instrumentation. Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Auditory perception Localisation of sound Interaural differences: • Intensity. Most suited to localising high frequencies • Time/phase. Most suited to localising low frequencies. Sounds emanating from directly in front and behind the head produce the same interaural differences. Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Auditory perception Practical implications < Cockpit design – The cockpit relies heavily on the presentation of visual information. Adoption of auditory signals may reduce the workload experienced by pilots in the visual domain. < Localisation of auditory warnings – Similar sounding warnings emanating from similar areas may cause confusion – Adoption of white noise bursts within ambulance sirens Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Visual perception What you see is what you get? Visual modality is obviously extremely important in aviation. But can we always trust our eyes? The visual scene is captured by the eye as a poor quality, two-dimensional representation What is perceived is determined by: < ‘Bottom-up’ processes. The percept of a stimulus is determined by features of the stimulus as processed by the visual cortex < ‘Top-down’ processes. The interpretation (consciously or not) of a stimulus can be determined by our experience and knowledge Important distinction! Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Visual perception Top-down processes < If the percept is generated deterministically (bottom-up processing) from the visual cortex. . . Necker cube Thirteen or ‘B’? <. . . how can one distal (real world) stimulus produce two percepts? < By a mental model: Our own experience and expectations help to determine what we see (top-down processing) Lincoln or women? Old or young women? Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Visual perception Depth perception: learn this! < Convergence – of the eyes. < Stereopsis – disparity between the two images. < Accommodation – of the lens. < Retinal versus actual size – for known objects. < Overlap – a near object will occlude the view of a far object. < Position in visual field – objects nearer the horizon are farther away. < Aerial Perspective – clarity of objects is reduced at distance. < Relative motion – angular velocity greater for near objects. All require both bottom-up & top-down processing. Downloaded from www. avhf. com

How we perceive depth • Position in visual field • • Textual Gradient • • Surfaces will have a finer texture with distance Occlusion • • Retinal versus actual size Relative motion • Binocular disparity between the two images a near object will occlude the view of a far object Perceptual constancy • • Stereopsis • • objects nearer the horizon are farther away • angular velocity greater for near objects Convergence • of the eyes • All require both bottom-up & top-down processing. 44 Know this Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Visual perception Some perceptual problems < Featureless surfaces, or those with textures of unknown sizes, can produce inaccurate judgements of size. – Sea. – Beehives for caravans. < Can produce an inaccurate mental model of the situation which overrides the correct perception of the instruments. – Top-down influences. – Exacerbated by fatigue and workload. Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Visual perception: know the practical implications (next few slides) Practical implications: visual approach < Pilots may have to visually judge the glide slope without any cues other than those from the surface of the world. < The ‘aspect’ (retinal shape) of the runway is not very useful. < However, the visual touchdown point is a constant and unchanging cue, relative to the horizon. < If the horizon cannot be seen, its location must be implied, – The runway’s sides meet at the horizon. – The terrain’s texture gradients. – The relative position of the aircraft’s canopy. Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Visual perception Practical implications: visual approach (2) HORIZON B Visual touchdown point A Angle of Approach A = B Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Visual perception Practical implications: visual approach (3) Visual impact point Actual touchdown point = angle of approach Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Visual perception Practical implications: mid-air collisions < Identification of a colliding aircraft is confounded by; – Constant relative bearing. • Unique characteristic. • Periphery of retina detects sensitive to movement. – Non-linear increase in retinal size. • Retinal image doubles with each halving of closure distance. – Uneven visual acuity across the retina. • Maximal acuity at the fovea. • Detection only if pilot is looking directly at it. • Implications for visual scanning to acquire proximal image on the fovea. Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Visual perception Practical implications: mid-air collisions (2) Impact aring Be Relative Aircraft A Downloaded from www. avhf. com Aircraft B

Visual perception Practical implications: mid-air collisions (3) 3 secs / 0. 5 degree 1. 5 secs / 1 degree 0. 1 secs / VERY BIG Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Perception Summary < Bottom-up (information from our senses) and top-down (expectations and experiences) processes affect the way we perceive the world. < The resultant perception is often not a true reflection of the external world. < This can be advantageous when it is in our interest for differences between features in the external world to be exaggerated but potentially catastrophic when perceptual illusions lead us to take inappropriate behaviour. Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Ergonomics Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Why ‘Ergonomics’? – Murrell Downloaded from www. avhf. com

The HSI Framework – seven domains – – Manpower Personnel Training Human Factors Engineering (aka Ergonomics) • Workplace design • Anthropometry • Critical Dimensions – System Safety – Health Hazards – Social & Organisational Some people adopt a strict definition of ergonomics; others treat all of HSI as being within the scope of ergonomics. You would not be penalised for adopting the latter definition! < HSI often called Human Factors Integration (HFI) – HFI is really the process by which HSI is applied to equipment procurement Downloaded from www. avhf. com

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Tragic consequences USS Vincennes Kegworth Chernobyl Herald of Free Enterprise Three Mile Island Downloaded from www. avhf. com

HSI Domains KNOW THESE Manpower: numbers of personnel required to operate, maintain, sustain, & train to deliver capability (e. g. aircrew complement) Personnel: cognitive/physical capabilities required to train for, operate, maintain, sustain system Training: instruction/education/ training to provide job skills, knowledge, values, and attitudes (different methods summarised) Human Factors Engineering (aka Ergonomics) Workplace design Anthropometry Critical Dimensions Systems Safety: applying HF expertise into programme Safety Management Process Health hazards: conditions inherent in the system that may cause injury or reduce performance or well-being Social/organisational factors: applying techniques from organisational psychology, social sciences, information science, and system of systems Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Human Factors Engineering (aka Ergonomics) focused on the integration of human characteristics into system definition, design, development, and evaluation to optimise human machine performance under operational conditions. Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Workplaces & interfaces <Cockpits <Workstations <Control rooms <Offices <Transport systems <Factories <Controls <Displays <Computer hardware <Computer software <Protective clothing <Other people Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Physical workplace design < Inputs required from – EHFA – Task analysis – Link analysis – Allocation of function < Consider – Operational and environmental context – Human dimensions – Biomechanics and physiology Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Functional factors < Task issues – Procedures – Critical elements < Responsibilities of organisation and individuals < Communications – Verbal – Non-verbal < Visual issues, such as sight lines < Flows of materials and personnel < Access and clearance – Normal – Emergency – Maintenance < Protection – Protective clothing & equipment – Barriers & guards Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Anthropometry < Physical human dimensions < Population specific < Linear dimensions, for example: – Stature – Functional reach – Sitting height < Girth dimensions, for example: – Waist – Head circumference < Each dimension is expressed in terms of percentile Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Be careful with percentiles when applying anthropometry < Requirements often state …must accommodate the 5 th percentile and the 95 th percentile human… < But, these people do NOT exist! Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Critical dimensions <Choose dimensions relevant to the workstation, posture, and task – Sitting, standing, reach, fit, walking, crouching <5 th percentile (smaller) dimensions considered for: – Seat adjustment, reach, vision, control movement, foot rests <95 th percentile (larger) dimensions considered for: – Seat adjustment, ingress, fit, access, clearance Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Clothing < Clothing increases most dimensions through the addition of bulk – e. g. stature, sitting height, chest depth, shoulder breadth But < Decreases the reach dimensions due to restriction of movement – e. g. functional reach, vertical functional reach Downloaded from www. avhf. com

When to integrate Human Factors (Eurocontrol, 1999) Downloaded from www. avhf. com

HSI “Designed” to Fit Mo. D’s Acquisition Operating Framework (AOF) Policy and Good Practice < CADMID cycle < System Readiness Levels (DEF STAN 00 -250. May 2008; http: //www. aof. mod. uk ; www. hfidtc. com ) < Mo. D JSP to be introduced later this year Has now happened Concept Assessment Initial Gate Demonstration Main Gate Manufacture In service System Acceptance Downloaded from www. avhf. com Disposal

Summary < HSI covers all aspects of applied human factors < Human Factors Engineering is just one element that needs to be integrated < HSI comprises tools and processes that fit with systems engineering < HSI is widely applicable < Early inclusion is so much better than late intervention Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Stress and Workload Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Types of stress • Life stress less important than the others in this context, but be aware of it • Environmental stress • Cognitive stress Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Life stress Typically measured by questionnaire Some correlation between questionnaire scores and illness Some evidence that life stress is associated with accidents Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Environmental stress Yerkes-Dodson law: Know this Inverted U relation between arousal and performance Performance declines as arousal increases or decreases from the optimal level Performance The optimal arousal level is inversely related to task difficulty Difficult task Easy task Level of arousal Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Know this Fear • disruption of manual dexterity • disruption of secondary task performance Noise • greater effect on difficult tasks • effect on error • increased attentional selectivity • effect on arousal (increases initially, then returns to normal) Sleep loss • periodic lapses • decreased attentional selectivity • greater decrement on ‘easy’ tasks • decreased arousal Hypoxia • performance affected at over 10, 000 ft • some evidence that task learning is affected at only 8, 000 ft Combined stressors Sleep loss and noise each impair performance in isolation However, noise improves the performance of sleep-deprived individuals Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Patterns of effects of stressors (from Hockey) Stressor Arousal Selectivity Speed Accuracy STM Noise Anxiety Incentive Stimulants Heat Alcohol Sleep loss Fatigue Depressants + + + - + + + + - 0 0 + + 0 - + 0 0 0 - + 0 increase decrease no effect no need to memorise all this, but know that each stressor has its own pattern of effects (cannot be explained by Yerkes-Dodson law) Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Personality and stress Know this Two major dimensions of personality are: neuroticism (trait anxiety) introversion-extraversion Introverts are chronically over-aroused Extraverts are chronically under-aroused An arousing stressor (caffeine) has different effects on these individuals Trait anxiety comprises worry and emotionality Worry appears to interfere with task performance Performance of high-anxiety subjects impaired under high workload Evidence that personality influences success in flying training Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Is the Yerkes-Dodson law adequate? Know this For: • Can explain effects of combined stressors • Can explain some effects of personality • Can explain some effects of task difficulty (e. g. greater effect of sleep loss on easy tasks) Against: • Does not explain specific patterns of effects of individual stressors • Does not explain effects on attention • Too flexible: does not lead to firm predictions Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Factors influencing the effects of stressors know this • Task difficulty • Task duration • Personality • Intensity of the stressor • Motivation • Importance of the task component • Presence of other stressors Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Workload (cognitive stress) know this Types of workload measure Subjective Example: NASA Task Load Index • easy to obtain • face valid • unobtrusive • subjects can readily quantify their experience • difficult to establish which questions to ask (dimensions of workload) • difficult to compare different types of task • ratings may not be correlated with task performance Physiological Example: heart rate variability • do not disrupt performance • often provide continuous record • equipment may be physically intrusive • only indirect indication of performance Performance-based Primary task or secondary task (e. g. time estimation) • provide direct measure of operator • operator may invest more effort to maintain primary-task performance • choice of secondary task is important Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Effects of high workload • operator is prone to actions not as planned: unable to monitor activity fully • increased attentional selectivity • may respond quickly but inaccurately • may shed some sub-tasks completely Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Strategies for workload reduction [know this] Change the task: apply sound ergonomic principles automate some functions use new technologies Change the operator provide extensive training, to produce motor programs (overlearning) Personnel selection for example, low trait anxiety may confer better ability to cope with high task demands Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Selection Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Aims: Deciding • What to measure • How to measure • Effectiveness of measures Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Stages in Selection System Specify selection criteria Specify assessment methods The Systems Approach to developing selection processes. 1. Job / Competency analysis — Identify Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSAs) required 2. Use KSAs to identify appropriate selection methods. 3. Establish the reliability and fairness of the process 4. Validate Evaluate (After Hunter & Burke 1995) Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Job Analysis Job Requirements Person Requirements Task Competencies Aptitudes Prediction Criteria Predictors Job Description Person Specification (After Hunter & Burke 1995) Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Job Analysis • Aim — Identify critical competencies required for successful job performance • • Outputs — What does the job holder do? Inputs — what skills, knowledge, abilities does the job holder need? • Result is a competency framework identifying critical success factors associated with successful performance • Why? 1. 2. To achieve the best possible prediction of job performance (put the right people in the job) Legal requirement – test fairness Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Types of Job Analysis 1. Hierarchical task analysis (Annett, Duncan et al 1971) 2. Functional Analysis (Fletcher 1991) Techniques: Critical incidence technique (CIT) (Flanagan 1954*) • Identify key roles and functions of job • Identify critical behaviours (related to success or failure) • Classify into similar behaviours • Summarise • Validate using other SME Other techniques include Repertory grid Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Classifying Aptitudes Fleishman’s Taxonomy of Skills Abilities were classified into: • Cognitive: Information processing and problem solving • Perceptual/spatial: Attention and spatial orientation • Physical: Flexibility, strength and stamina • Psychomotor: Coordination and reaction time NATO Study: Aptitude dimensions for military fast-jet pilots (Bydorf 1993) • Situational awareness: Perceptual closure + reaction time • Spatial orientation • Time sharing • Aggressiveness • Divided attention • Psychomotor coordination • Perceptual speed • Selective attention • Visualisation Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Weighting Aptitudes Determining priorities • Need to identify relative importance of aptitudes in job performance • DIF Analysis. Ratings of: • Difficulty • Importance • Frequency Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Choice of Measure Personality Questionnaire Group exercises CV; Biodata Interview Ability • Psychometric tests • Work sample tests • Physical tests Life Experiences Motivation Performance Downloaded from www. avhf. com Temperament • Occupational Interest Inventories; • Measures of personal values • Interview

Types of aptitude measure • Paper & pencil measures • Computer-based testing: BARB (British Army); OASC (RAF); Micro. Pat (AAC, RN, BA, Cathay); TASKOMAT (Commercial); BAT (USAF) • Ease of administration • Experimental testing • Dynamic measures possible • Measure processing capacity • Multi-tasks • Sophisticated measures such as response latency • Work sample • RAF Flying Grading • Simulation based • Advantages of CBT & work sample • Lower costs Example: Canadian Automated Pilot Selection System • Biodata • Personality measures see other lectures Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Effectiveness of measures Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Evaluating Selection: Reliability and Validity Reliability Accuracy and stability of the test • Internal consistency reliability • Split-half reliability • Parallel forms • Test-retest reliability • Inter-rater reliability Validity Does the test really measure what it claims to measure? • Construct validity • Content validity • Predictive validity See other lectures as well! Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Error in allocation Performance score Cut-off score True Positives False Negatives ‘Pass Mark’ True Negatives False Positives Predictor score Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Performance score Higher Correlation reduces error TP FN FP TN Predictor score Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Effect. Cut-off of setting Cut-off scores score Performance score 1 Cut-off score 2 ‘Pass Mark’ Predictor score Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Average Correlation between competency ratings and job performance Interpreting scores • Norm referenced — most cognitive/ability tests • Self referenced — Attitude/Personality measures • Criterion-referenced — job skills Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Validity of Different Methods Mean Validity Co-efficient Selection Method Interview - Unstructured 1 . 14 Interview - Structured 2 . 35 Biodata 1 . 37 References 3/1 . 17 to. 26 Cognitive ability testing 4/1 . 25 to. 53 Personality testing 1/5 . 10 to. 33 Work-sample tests 1 . 54 Trainability tests 6 . 46 Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Example: RAF Aircrew Selection READY TO CHANGE YOUR LIFE? Your visit to OASC will take several days and includes: • an initial briefing; • aptitude tests; • an aptitude test review; • the exercise phase; • an interview; • an occupational medical; and • fitness assessments . (from OASC brochure) Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Example: RAF Aircrew Selection ADPO 10369 EVOLUTION OF APTITUDE TESTING IN THE RAF M. Bailey, RAF Cranwell Before 1940: main method was unstructured interview About 50% pilot training failure rate at start of WWII First set of Aircrew Selection Board tests included • Essay writing • Elementary maths • General intelligence • Early developments • need recognised for separate tests of skills and personality • shift to testing for specific roles (e. g. electromechanical coordination) • 1944: With help from USAAF, series of objectives measures (e. g. 24 aptitude tests for six aircrew categories) – waste down from 48% to 25% • use of specially trained staff Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Example: RAF Aircrew Selection 1944– 84 Many more tests created – but at the end of this period tests were not markedly different Preliminary Flying School closed 1974 – selection then relied purely on aptitude tests. For various reasons validities dropped; for example, to. 14 for training results Second generation selection tests: • exploited increased computing capability: • at first, computerised versions of existing tests • later, new tests (based on abilities required, using Fleishman’s system) – Air Traffic and Fighter Controller Test Battery produced • Nine weighted test scores used • Good predictive validity Issues • No formal job analysis • Tests driven by theory and test availability Hence 1990 s: • Shift to domain-centred framework Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Example: RAF Aircrew Selection : Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Simulation and Training Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Information from • skill lecture • simulation and training lecture (technical skills) • CRM lecture (non-technical skills) • Human error lecture • etc Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Key Issues • Training needs analysis (organisational, occupational, individual) — focus on Knowledge, Skills, Abilities/ Attitudes (KSAs) Design of training programme • Develop Instruction by Objective • Select Instructional Strategy • Select/ organise element to be trained • Identify training aids • Organise materials/resources • Apply learning principles • Develop Evaluation Instruments • Implementation (who, where, when) • Evaluation (Reaction, Learning, Behaviour, Results) • Note DIF analysis (difficulty, importance, frequency) — helps to decide whether not to train, or to over-train Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Training issues (see also Human Information Processing lecture): • Massed versus distributed practice • Whole- versus part-task approach • Phases of learning • Feedback Media and technology • Simulation — very important in aviation, where the objective is to maximise the transfer of learning from simulator to aircraft; fidelity is a key issue: do not need physical fidelity (simulator does not need to resemble the aircraft), but functional fidelity is important • Internet-based — increasingly important; can be accessed even in the field • Traditional — still some role for classroom-based instruction Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Situation Awareness Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Topics < Definitions < Models < Theory < Metrics < Applications < Limitations Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Why is Studying Situation Awareness Important? Hartel, Smith and Prince (1991) Leading causal factor in a review of 175 aviation mishaps Endsley (1994) Major causal factor in 88% of accidents associated with human error in a review of major aircraft carrier accidents (1989 -1992) Woodhouse and Woodhouse (1995) Controlled Flight Into terrain (CFIT) accidents killed 5000 people between 1978 and 1992. 74% of these accidents were due to loss of flight crew SA Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Historical Origins of SA < SA popularised to describe the psychological processes of: – – – Attention Memory Perception Prediction Pattern Matching ‘Mental Model’ of the situation Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Definitions of SA 1 < Situation Awareness is. . . “. . . Knowledge of current and near-term disposition of both friendly and enemy forces within a volume of airspace. ” Mc. Millan (1994) “. . . One’s ability to remain aware of everything that is happening at the same time and to integrate that sense of awareness into what one is doing at that moment. ” Haines & Flateau (1992) “. . . A pilot’s continuous perception of self and aircraft in relation to the dynamic environment of flight, threats, and mission, and the ability to forecast, then execute tasks based on that perception. ” Hamilton (1987) Downloaded from www. avhf. com

A Working Definition of SA < Situation Awareness is. . . – “The perception of the elements in the environment within a volume of time and space, the comprehension of their meaning, and the projection of their status in the near future” Endsley (1988) – It is derived from the aircraft instrumentation, the out-thewindow view, and his or her senses – The quality of an operator’s SA is moderated by individual capabilities, training, experience, objectives, and the ability to respond to task workload – The term ‘SA’ should only ever be applied to dynamic environments Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Summary know this PROJECTION OF FUTURE STATUS COMPREHENSION OF CURRENT SITUATION PERCEPTION OF ENVIRONMENT < When all is said and done we know that Situation Awareness refers to an operator’s knowledge and Understanding of the dynamic environment in which he/she is operating < It is knowledge of the ‘Big Picture’ < SA provides the basis for subsequent decision making and performance in the operation of complex, dynamic systems Downloaded from www. avhf. com

A Model of SA Level 3 Level 2 Level 1 PROJECTION OF FUTURE STATUS COMPREHENSION OF CURRENT SITUATION PERCEPTION OF ENVIRONMENT Endsley (1995) Downloaded from www. avhf. com ‘Predict future events / states based on understanding’ ‘Integrate with task goals’ ‘Perceive relevant information’

Endsley’s Model be aware of main elements Model of SA in dynamic decision making (from Endsley, 2000) Downloaded from www. avhf. com

E. g. IQ Cognitive Abilities Conscientiousness Experience Personality Training Risk Taking Qineti. Q’s Model of The SA Process Operator Traits E. g. Frightened Confused High Workload Fatigued Aggressive E. g. Temperature Time Pressures Day/night Noise Lethality Environmental State Operator State Real World/System Information Goals Mission Goals System Goals Personal Goals SA Downloaded from www. avhf. com Salience of info Availability of info Info complexity Info quantity Automation Quality of HMI

The SA Process The SA ‘PROCESS’ < A series of complex cognitive processes, including: Perception, Working Memory, Pattern Matching, Attention and Long Term Memory < NOT ‘task’ or ‘individual’ specific < Also referred to as Situation Assessment (SAS) < Will be influenced by a multitude of ‘SA Factors’ Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Factors Affecting the SA Process Operator Traits Environmental State Goals/Doctrine /SOPs Knowledge/ Information E. g. IQ Cognitive Abilities Conscientiousness Experience Personality Training Risk Taking E. g. Temperature Time Pressures Day/night Noise Lethality Mission Goals System Goals Personal Goals Directives ROE Commander Intent Salience of info Availability of info Info complexity Info quantity Automation Quality of HMI < These factors WILL BE ‘task’ AND ‘individual’ specific < Each factor will have different weightings or importance attached to it for differing military domains < The number of such factors is vast Know the main headings! Downloaded from www. avhf. com

SA as a Product < The output of the SA PROCESS will be a number of ‘Situation Models’ (or dynamic mental models) < These situation models are essentially knowledge and understanding < The quality of a person’s SA is defined by the match between these situation models and reality Real World The difference between these represents the quality of one’s SA Situation Model Downloaded from www. avhf. com

SA Elements < The person will have a situation model for each of the relevant ‘SA Information Domains’ associated with a specific task or job < Each SA information domain will comprise a number of ‘SA Elements’ < Example: Endsley (2001) illustrates this for the task/job of piloting a civil aviation aircraft Geographical SA • own aircraft • other aircraft • terrain features • airports System SA • cities • system status • waypoints • functioning and settings • navigation fixes • radio • position relative to • altimeter Spatial/Temporal SA designated features • transponders attitude • • path to desired location • flight modes and automation altitude • • runway and taxiway assignments • deviations from correct settings heading • • climb/descent points Environmental SA • • ATC communications present velocity • • weather formations and movement fuel vertical velocity • • temperature impact of degrades and settings Gs • • icing • on performance flight path • • ceilings time and distance available on fuel actual values relative to assigned • • fog projected flight path • • Turbulence, winds projected landing time • sun • visibility • IFR/VFR conditions • areas to avoid • flight safety • projected weather conditions Downloaded from www. avhf. com

In Summary < The development and maintenance of SA occurs within an individual’s head < The SA process (or SAS) is a generic continuous process/cycle that is impacted upon by many factors < These factors will vary in their importance and influence depending upon the specific task and the individual undertaking that task < An individual will continuously cycle through the SA process for each SA Information Domain, developing a situation model for each < These situation models will be task-specific < All situation models will be continually updated and revised as new information becomes available or as the factors affecting the SA process change in importance or in state Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Team SA < SA can be applied to teams as well as to individuals < Caution needed here, as SA cannot be shared (it resides inside the individual’s head), but information can be shared < We could be talking about: – 1) The overlap in SA for the team – 2) The SA of the team as moderated by the primary decision maker – 3) The collective SA of the entire team Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Measuring Situation Awareness < SA has become a major design driver – Developing operator interfaces to enhance SA – Developing automated systems without resulting in a loss of SA – Training techniques are designed to develop better SA < Development of SA metrics for evaluation purposes – Development of metrics since the late 1980 s – Varying degrees of maturity / validation – Various forms of metrics • Subjective Vs Objective • Self-report Vs Third-Party rating • Simulator-based Vs Test flight Downloaded from www. avhf. com

SA Metrics < Crew SA < SA Global Assessment technique (SAGAT) < Snapshots < SA Flight Training Evaluator (SAFTE) < China Lake SA Scale (CLSA) < SA Rating Technique (SART) < SA Supervisory Rating Form (SASRF) < Physiological Measures: Eye Activity Downloaded from www. avhf. com

SA Metrics – Summary <Know at least SAGAT/SART in a little detail, plus names of a few others Downloaded from www. avhf. com

SA Metrics – Summary < Most SA measures have been designed using a particular SA definition, and with a specific application in mind – Keep this in mind when selecting an SA measure < In practice, 2 of the SA measures outlined previously are used far more than the others: – SART (subjective) – SAGAT (objective) < This is probably due to the extensive validity data that accompanies these measures (we ‘know’ they are measuring SA) Downloaded from www. avhf. com

So, of What Use is SA Research? < There are three main military applications for SA research: – 1) System/interface design, development, assessment and evaluation • Operator interfaces designed to enhance SA • Automated systems must switch without losing operator SA – 2) Training operators to have better SA – 3) Selecting operators who are predisposed to having high SA Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Limitations of SA < Immature concept – Still much debate over definitions and measures < SA is a theoretical construct – Practical difficulties in measuring and predicting SA – For those who do not understand theoretical basics of what SA is all about, there can be an element of perceived circularity ‘Why did the aircraft crash? ’ Because he crashed Because of lack of pilot SA ‘How do we know there was a lack of pilot SA? ’ Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Crew Resource Management (CRM) Downloaded from www. avhf. com

CRM Training Introduction < Need for effective interaction < Aviation accidents: most have human error component CRM Evolution < Evolution of CRM to fifth-generation Downloaded from www. avhf. com

CRM Training Objectives of CRM < Knowledge, skills, attitudes to promote safe, efficient operations: – Effective decision making – Good crew communication – Understanding/acceptance of role and responsibilities < CRM focuses broadly on training transportable teamwork skills Downloaded from www. avhf. com

CRM Training < Types of CRM course < Foundation Course – Wide range of topics covered – Focus on discussion and video < Continuation Courses – In depth coverage of topic areas – Skills practice (low fidelity) < LOFT/MOST – – Skills practice (high fidelity) Crew-centred debrief Downloaded from www. avhf. com

CRM Training < Topics in typical CRM courses – Human information processing – Personality and attitudes – Communications – Teamwork structures – Teamwork behaviours – Leadership style – Decision making – Stress management – Human error – Situation awareness – Automation on the flight deck – Fatigue and workload – Case studies & research findings – Be able to list the main topics Downloaded from www. avhf. com

CRM Training Leadership issues < Effects of captain’s attitudes < Authority Gradient Downloaded from www. avhf. com

CRM Training < Communication – US ASRS: most accidents involved failure of information transfer – Low-error crews demonstrate different patterns of comms < Communication skills know them! – – – Inquiry Advocacy Listening Conflict resolution Critique Feedback < Barriers to communication – – Physical; word usage; interpersonal; mental Cultural and language barriers Subordination problems ‘Power-distance’ barriers Downloaded from www. avhf. com

CRM Training < Core teamwork behaviours – Monitoring – Feedback – Backing up Downloaded from www. avhf. com

CRM Training < Ad hoc teams – Frequently arise in airline ops – 73% of accidents occur on first day crew flying together < Situation awareness – Important topic in CRM – See lecture on SA! Downloaded from www. avhf. com

CRM Training < CRM training resources – Self-study – Classroom awareness training – Modelling – Classroom skills training – Skills practice in simulators – Practice/coaching during flying Downloaded from www. avhf. com

CRM Training < LOFT – Run in a high fidelity simulator – Realistic sortie/real time – Crew and facilitator ‘in role’ – Few failures – Non-technical focus – Focus on choice dilemmas – Non jeopardy – Crew-centred debrief using video Downloaded from www. avhf. com

CRM Training < CRM Issues – What is ‘best practice’? – Does it work? – Those needing most help from CRM most resistant to change – May change attitudes but not behaviour – Needs management commitment – CRM skill fade occurs over time – Cultural issues should be considered Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Error and Accidents (See Accident module) The following may help you structure your Knowledge of this topic – drawn from work of John Chappelow Downloaded from www. avhf. com

ENVIRONMENT Disruptive factors noise heat cold vibration threat task demand Be able to list/ describe the main factors SYSTEM Enabling factors OPERATOR ergonomics training briefing social context Predispositions personality talent fatigue alcohol overarousal underarousal Intention Perception Action Task Downloaded from www. avhf. com

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Summary: major factors Ergonomics Training Briefing Admin. support Cognitive failure 17% Disorganised response 26% Personality 21% Inexperience 23% ~ 40% Social context Downloaded from www. avhf. com 9% Social factors 11%

Neurotic You’ve seen this before. . . Anxious Impulsive Extraverted Introverted Stable Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Major causal factors: Human factors Expanded data set Downloaded from www. avhf. com

Sensitivity: Human factors Social factors Distraction This graph shows benefit of eliminating the factor, and cost of an increase in its severity High task demand Inexperience Administrative support Briefing Social factors are seen to be more important when we conduct sensitivity analysis: these problems are soluble Lack of airmanship Supervision Sensory limitations Social context -15 -10 -5 0 Expanded data set Downloaded from www. avhf. com 5 10 15

Error: Examples of Possible Remedies know this Social factors • Personnel selection • CRM training Distraction • May be able to select individuals less prone to distraction High task demand • Selection (e. g. , some personality types cope better with high workload) • Training creates more ‘spare capacity’ • The system can be modified to reduce workload (automation, better ergonomics etc) Inexperience • More (or improved) training Administrative support • Organisational interventions Downloaded from www. avhf. com