Digital Signal Processing A host of technologies touching
- Slides: 46
Digital Signal Processing A host of technologies touching many interdisciplinary areas • What is a signal? a. b. c. d. An agreed upon message that triggers action or carries information A message that conveys notice or warning An electronic message conveyed by telephone, radio, radar, or television A measurable physical quantity (e. g. voltage, current, magnetic field) • What is a digital signal? An array of measurements • Examples of Signal Processing? Stock market prices, streaming of video, data mining, natural language processing, data compression, image processing, earthquake prediction, medical diagnosis, etc. • Interdisciplinary aspects: Physics, Engineering, Psychology, Mathematics, Computer Science, Cognition, Biology, etc. • Processing algorithms: breaks down to twiddling single and multi dimension arrays; often algorithms result in small amounts of code, which is heavy in mathematics/statistics a. Difficulties: Signals are often imprecise and have many redundancies
Digital Signal Processing (DSP) • Radar and Sonar – What signal comes back? • Image Processing – Transmit & reconstruct • Linguistics – Recognize & Synthesis • Algorithms – Compress and encrypt, noise removal, filter • Music • Military: – Secure channels, laser bombs • Exploration: – oil, minerals, ocean mapping • Climate: – Earthquake, weather patterns • Grand Challenges – Real world simulations • Medical – Medical Resonance Imaging – Synthesis and edit Applications: Cell Phones, voice mail, phone support, web translation, and many more.
Signal Redundancy • Continuous signal (virtually infinite) • Sampled representations of speech – Mac: 44, 100 2 -byte samples per second (705 kbps) – PC: 16, 000 2 -byte samples per second (256 kbps) – Telephone: 4 k 1 -byte sample per second (32 kbps) – CELP Audio Compression Algorithm: 8 kbps – Research: 4 kbps, 2. 4 kbps – Military applications: 600 bps – Human brain: 50 bps Definition: Sampling Rate is the number of measurements per second
Noise • Definition: Random electrical or acoustic activity that obscures communication • Noise impact on speech – – Noise degrades the speech recognition effectiveness Consider construction noise outside the window How much noise makes normal speech unintelligible? What do human beings do to compensate? • Automated Solution – Apply appropriate filters to eliminate noise from signals – Effective filters must not destroy essential signal data
Natural Language Processing The Noisy Channel Computational Linguistics 1. Replace the vocal articulators with a synthesizer 2. Replace the ear with a receiver 2. Replace the brain with the computer
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Discrete versus Continuous • Continuous (analog): A signal, typically in found in nature, whose infinite values are represented by a mathematical function. That is given any point in time, if we know the initial conditions, we can compute a value at that point. • Discrete (digital): A sequence of measurements, each one separated by a fixed time interval. • Digital processing of continuous signals – Computers deal with digital signals, because memory, though large, has a finite size. – Input devices measure signal strength thousands of times a second (e. g. audio: 44, 100 is common). These values translate into a huge arrays in computer memory.
Signal Dimensionality Note: Even higher dimension signals can be reduced to a single dimension • Single Dimension (audio) • Three Dimensions (video) • Double Dimension (images) • Higher Dimension (Climate Change Simulations)
Signal Power (Energy) Energy is the square of the amplitude • Decibels: ratio between power of two signals. Dimensionless, like percent. • SPL (Sound Pressure Level) is the ratio of a sound to the threshold of human hearing Note: doubling the power increases decibels by three. Increase by 10 decibels increases power by 10. Note: 10 log(P 1/P 2) = 20 log(A 1/A 2) Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Third Edition, Richard Lyons (0 -13 -261480 -4) © Pearson Education, 2011.
Sound d. B TOH 0 Whisper 10 Quiet Room 20 Office 50 Normal conversation 60 Busy street 70 Heavy truck traffic 90 Power tools 110 Pain threshold 120 Sonic boom 140 Permanent damage 150 Jet engine 160 Cannon muzzle 220
Working with Signals • Special purpose languages: Mat. Lab, Octave – Matlab is very expensive, but available on campus – Octave, is largely compatible (but not entirely), and is free • Free signal visualization programs: Graph. Calc • Sound Editing tools: ACORNS Sound Editor, Audacity. Sound Editor source is available to the class • Java based resources: Java Sound, Tritonus
Graph. Calc (Freeware ) Good for creating and visualizing signals
Communication of Signals • Pulse code Modulation (PCM) – An array of measured values – Audio wav files: PCM with a header, defining big versus small endian, sample rate, bytes per sample, number of channels • Compression techniques to reduce bandwidth – Transmit differences between adjacent values – Don’t transmit runs of the same value – Algorithms (e. g. Linear prediction) to predict next values from previous, and transmit the prediction errors – Coding techniques to transmit infrequent values using more bytes than those that are common Processing first step: translate compressed values to PCM
Understanding Sine Waves • Sine is the ratio of the height to the hypotenuse • Many phenomena in nature occur in sine wave patterns
Basic Terminology – periodic signals • Amplitude — The distance from zero to the maximum height • Period — The time it takes for a sine wave to complete one cycle • Frequency (Hz) — The repetitions or cycles per second (1/period)
Rope Impulse Waves • A hand jerk is an impulse starting the wave to travel. – Speed of hand jerk determines frequency – Rope stiffness determines wave velocity – Reverse waves starts at the fixed end, which can resonate if forward waves correlate, or cancel if they don’t. – Eventually a steady state is reached and we perceive no motion
Traffic Waves
Complex Wave Patterns • Sound waves occupying the same space combine to form a new wave of a different shape. • Harmonically related waves add together and can create any complex wave pattern. • Harmonically related waves have frequencies that are multiples of a basic frequency. Note: All frequency waves do not have to start at zero, they can be “out of phase”. The amount of shift in degrees is called their phase angle.
Complex Wave Examples
Time vs. Frequency Domain Time Domain: A composite wave summing different frequencies Frequency Domain: Split time domain into component frequencies
Historical Note • Jean Baptist Joseph Fourier (1768 -1830) – Paper submitted: Academy of Science in Paris, 1807 – Claim: All signals decompose into a sum of sine waves • The review committee – Laplace (1749 -1827) voted to accept – Lagrange (1736 -1813) voted to reject. The claim did not account for waves with sharp corners – The paper never got published • Results – Fourier was correct if we use an infinite series of waves – Lagrange was correct if we use a finite series of waves – Fourier analysis is the foundation for Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
Time and Frequency Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Third Edition, Richard Lyons (0 -13 -261480 -4) © Pearson Education, 2011.
Non Periodic or Quasi-periodic • Many signals change their characteristics over time • Fourier showed that within smalls time windows, we can analyze signal chunks as if they were periodic • Processing involves 1. Chopping signals into overlapping “frames” of some millisecond width 2. “Window” the frames, which means apply algorithms to smooth the abrupt edges 3. Perform “feature” extraction algorithms on windowed frames to obtain set of numbers that functions like a frame’s fingerprint 4. Use the feature sets to perform additional processing Quasi-periodic: Signals, that are somewhat periodic, but whose features slowly change over time
Sample Sound Signal (Sound Editor) Download and install from ACORNS web-site Top: “this is a demo” Bottom: “A goat …. A coat” Time Domain: x-axis: time, y-axis: amplitude measurement
Frequency Domain x-axis: time, y-axis: frequency, darkness = amplitude Narrow Band Spectrogram (horizontal lines – emphasizes frequency bins) Wide Band Spectrogram (Vertical lines – alignment of pitch harmonics)
Signal Power or Energy Power is the square of the amplitude, often measured in decibels Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Third Edition, Richard Lyons (0 -13 -261480 -4) © Pearson Education, 2011.
Temporal Features • Advantages – Minimal processing – Easy to understand • Examples – – – Zero-crossing rate Autocorrelation and autocorrelation peaks Pitch periods Loudness contour Maximum and minimum distance between audio positive and negative amplitude – Degree of voice in sounds (voicing quality)
Variance between Speakers
Signal Filter Modify the signal input in some way to produce a desired output Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Third Edition, Richard Lyons (0 -13 -261480 -4) © Pearson Education, 2011.
Filter Example Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Third Edition, Richard Lyons (0 -13 -261480 -4) © Pearson Education, 2011.
Moving Average Filter Useful Examples: • A Crude low pass filter • Smoothing a speech pitch contour Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Third Edition, Richard Lyons (0 -13 -261480 -4) © Pearson Education, 2011.
Signal processing Operations Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Third Edition, Richard Lyons (0 -13 -261480 -4) © Pearson Education, 2011.
Linear Systems • If x 1[n] ---> system ---> y 1[n] and x 2[n] ---> system ---> y 2[n] where system manipulates the input values in some way • A system is linear must be – Homogeneous (output is the sum of its parts) c 1*x 1[n] + c 2*x 2[n] ---> system ---> c 1*y 1[n] + c 2*y 2[n] – Time invariant (delay of input delays the output) x’ 1[n] = x[n+k] ---> system ---> y’ 1[n] = y[n+k]
Linear Systems A Linear System is one that is homogenous and additive Homogeneity • Multiply input to multiply the output • If (x(n) y(n) • Then c * x(n) -> c*y(n) Additivity • Summing input signals sums the output signals • If x 1(n) y 1(n) & x 2(n) y 2(n) • Then x 1(n)+x 2(n) y 1(n)+y 2(n)
Time Invariance Not required to be linear, but highly desirable • Shift the input signal to identically shift the output • Assume: x(n) y(n) • Then: x(n+∆) y(n+∆)
Time Invariant Example Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Third Edition, Richard Lyons (0 -13 -261480 -4) © Pearson Education, 2011.
Sinusoidal Fidelity • Feed a sine wave to the input • Linear Systems – Output will also be a sine wave – Output phase can shift – Output amplitude can be different • Non-linear systems – Not likely to demonstrate sinusoidal fidelity – It is possible, however, for a non-linear system to generate sine waves that don’t correlate to the input in a linear fashion
Linear System Example Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Third Edition, Richard Lyons (0 -13 -261480 -4) © Pearson Education, 2011.
Note: Linear systems can be connected in series and the result is still a linear system. Flipping the order of components does not affect the result because linear systems are commutative. Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Third Edition, Richard Lyons (0 -13 -261480 -4) © Pearson Education, 2011.
Note: Sending an impulse to an unknown system can help determine its operational characteristics Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Third Edition, Richard Lyons (0 -13 -261480 -4) © Pearson Education, 2011.
Non Linear System Example Useful Examples • Median of five is useful in computing a smooth pitch contour • Speech signal are mostly linear, but have some nonlinear components Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Third Edition, Richard Lyons (0 -13 -261480 -4) © Pearson Education, 2011.
How to Handle non-Linear Systems? They must be linear for known ways of analysis Approaches • Ignore the non-linearity if it is small enough – Example: low levels of noise • Convert to small amplitudes. – Many systems appear linear with small amplitudes • Apply a linearizing transform – Assume a[n] = b[n] * c[n] – Take logarithms (log(a[n] = log(b[n]) + log(c[n])
Synthesis and Decomposition Note: Algorithms often decompose a signal into pieces, perform some calculations, and then reconstruct Note: We can always reconstruct the by adding up the decomposed pieces Decomposition: break signal into two or more additive components Synthesis: Combining signals using scaling and addition
DSP with Synthesis and Decomposition Analyze in pieces to get result Numeric Example: 2041*4 = 2000*4+40*4+1*4 Decompose, Feed into linear Systems, and Synthesize Output
Even/Odd Decomposition • Assumptions – Even number of total points (N) – End sample attached to beginning – Decompose into even and odd signal • Even Symmetry – x. E[n]= (x[n] + [N-n])/2 – Point 0 and N/2 = signal value • Odd Symmetry – x. O[N]= (x[n]-x[N-n])/2 – Point 0 and N/2 = 0
Interlaced Decomposition • Decompose into even and odd signals • Even signal contains zeroes in the odd indices • Odd signal contains zeroes in the even indices
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