Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition Laura E

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Chapter 4 Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Body Growth § Height increases 50% by age 1, 75% by age 2 § Weight doubles by 5 months, triples by 1 year § Growth occurs in spurts § Individual and group differences in size and rate of growth © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Body Growth During First Two Years Figure 4. 1 Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Individual and Group Differences in Growth § Group differences: § male/female § ethnic § Individual differences § Skeletal age: best estimate of physical maturity © Oksana Kuzmina/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Growth Trends Changes in Body Proportions Cephalocaudal § “Head to tail” § Lower part of body grows later than the head Proximodistal § “Near to far” § Extremities grow later than head, chest, and trunk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Neurons and Their Connective Fibers Neurons Nerve cells that store and transmit information Synapses Tiny gaps where fibers from different neurons come together but do not touch Neurotransmitters Chemicals that are released by neurons and cross the synapse Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Major Milestones of Brain Development Figure 4. 3 (Adapted from Thompson & Nelson, 2001. ) Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Methods for Measuring Brain Functioning § Electroencephalogram (EEG) § Event-related potentials (ERPs) § Functional magnetic resonance imaging (f. MRI) § Positron emission tomography (PET) § Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Regions of the Cerebral Cortex Figure 4. 5 Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Prefrontal Cortex § Region of the cerebral cortex responsible for thought, especially: § § consciousness inhibition of impulses integration of information use of memory, reasoning, planning, and problem-solving strategies § Undergoes rapid growth in the preschool and school years, and in adolescence Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Lateralization of the Cerebral Cortex Left Hemisphere § Verbal abilities § Positive emotion § Sequential, analytic processing Right Hemisphere § Spatial abilities § Negative emotion § Holistic, integrative processing Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Brain Plasticity § At birth, hemispheres have begun to specialize § Highly plastic cerebral cortex has high capacity for learning § If part of cortex is damaged, other areas can take over its tasks § Older children and adults retain some plasticity, but less than in young children Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Sensitive Periods in Brain Development Appropriate stimulation is vital for brain growth § Experience-expectant growth: depends on ordinary experiences § Experience-dependent growth: additional growth resulting from specific learning experiences © Andy Lim/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Changing States of Arousal § Sleep–wake pattern moves to night–day schedule during first year § By age 2, total sleep time declines from 18 to 12 hours per day § Sleep patterns are affected by social environment, cultural values © Michael Pettigrew/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Influences on Early Growth § Heredity § Nutrition: § breastfeeding vs. bottle-feeding § risks of overfeeding § Malnutrition © stefanolunardi/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Benefits of Breastfeeding § Correct balance of fat § Protects against and protein faulty jaw and tooth development § Ensures nutritional completeness § Ensures digestibility § Helps ensure healthy § Smooths transition physical growth to solid food § Protects against disease Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Malnutrition Type Consequences Marasmus (diet low in all essential nutrients) Lasting physical damage; learning and behavioral effects; risk of death Kwashiorkor (diet very low in protein) Lasting physical damage; learning and behavioral effects Food insecurity Effects on physical growth; learning problems Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk The Steps of Classical Conditioning Figure 4. 7 Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Operant Conditioning Reinforcer Punishment § Increases probability that behavior will occur again by § Reduces probability that behavior will occur again by § presenting desirable stimulus § removing unpleasant stimulus § presenting unpleasant stimulus § removing desirable stimulus Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Using Habituation to Study Infant Memory and Knowledge Figure 4. 8 Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Imitation § Infants are born with primitive ability to imitate § Mirror neurons provide biological explanation § Powerful means of learning § Helps facilitate positive relationships © Seleznev Oleg/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Motor Development Sequence and Trends © S. Borisov/Shutterstock § Gross-motor development: crawling, standing, walking § Fine-motor development: reaching, grasping § Sequence is fairly uniform § Large individual differences in rate of motor progress Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems § Mastery involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action with each skill § Each new skill is joint product of § § central nervous system development the body’s movement capacity the child’s goals environmental supports for the skill Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Cultural Variations in Motor Development Rates and patterns of development affected by § early movement opportunities § environmental stimulation § child-rearing practices © Xi. Xing/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Milestones of Reaching and Grasping § Prereaching § Ulnar grasp § Transferring object from hand to hand § Pincer grasp © Stock. Lite/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Developments in Hearing 4– 7 months Sense of musical phrasing 6– 7 months Distinguishes musical tunes based on variations in rhythmic patterns 6– 8 months “Screens out” sounds not used in native language 6– 12 months Detects sound regularities in human speech 7– 9 months Begins to divide speech stream into wordlike units Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Visual Development § Supported by rapid maturation of eyes and visual centers in brain § Improvements: © Payless Images/Shutterstock § 2 months: focus § 4 months: color vision § 6 months: acuity, scanning, and tracking § 6– 7 months: depth perception Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Milestones in Depth Perception 3– 4 weeks Sensitivity to motion cues 2– 3 months Sensitivity to binocular depth cues 5– 7 months Sensitivity to pictorial depth cues Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk The Visual Cliff Reveals link between crawling and depth perception Figure 4. 13 Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Milestones in Pattern Perception 2 months Becomes sensitive to contrast in complex patterns; prefers them to simple patterns 2– 3 months Thoroughly explores a pattern’s features, pausing briefly to look at each part 4 months Detects pattern organization; can perceive subjective boundaries not really present 12 months Detects familiar objects represented by incomplete drawings Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Subjective Boundaries in Visual Patterns Figure 4. 15 (Adapted from Ghim, 1990; Rose, Jankowski, & Senior, 1997. ) Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Milestones in Face Perception Birth– 1 month 2– 4 months Prefers simple facelike pattern to other stimuli Prefers photos of faces with eyes open and direct gaze Prefers complex facial pattern to other complex stimulus arrangements Prefers mother’s detailed facial features to another woman’s 3 months Distinguishes features of different faces 5– 12 months Perceives emotional expressions on faces as meaningful wholes Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Early Face Perception Figure 4. 16 (From Cassia, Turati, & Simion, 2004; Johnson, 1999; Mondloch et al. , 1999. ) Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Milestones in Intermodal Perception Birth Perceives amodal sensory properties 3– 4 months Matches faces with voices on basis of lip–voice synchrony, emotional expression, and speaker’s age and gender 4– 6 months Perceives and remembers unique face–voice pairings of unfamiliar adults Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Differentiation Theory Infants § actively search for invariant features of the environment § notice stable relationships among features of a stimulus, detecting patterns such as individual faces § gradually detect finer and finer features Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Environment and Perceptual Differentiation Figure 4. 17 Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Readers may view, browse, and/or download material for temporary copying purposes only, provided these uses are for noncommercial personal purposes. Except as provided by law, this material may not be further reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, adapted, performed, displayed, published, or sold in whole or in part, without prior written permission from the publisher. Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.