Developing Management Skills Chapter 3 Solving Problems Analytically

Learning Objectives • Increase proficiency in analytic problem solving • Recognize personal conceptual blocks • Enhance creativity by overcoming conceptual blocks • Foster innovation among others © 2007 by Prentice Hall 3 -2

A Model of Problem Solving • Step 1: Define the Problem – – – – © 2007 by Prentice Hall Differentiate fact from opinion Specify underlying causes Tap everyone involved for information State the problem explicitly Identify what standard is violated Determine whose problem it is Avoid stating the problem as a disguised solution 3 -3

A Model of Problem Solving • Step 2: Generate Alternative Solutions – – – © 2007 by Prentice Hall Postpone evaluating alternatives Be sure all involved individuals generate alternatives Specify alternatives that are consistent with goals Specify both short- and long-term solutions Build on others’ ideas Specify alternatives that solve the problem 3 -4

A Model of Problem Solving • Step 3: Evaluate and Select an Alternative – – – © 2007 by Prentice Hall Evaluate relative to an optimal standard Evaluate systematically Evaluate relative to goals Evaluate main effects and side effects State the selected alternative explicitly 3 -5

A Model of Problem Solving • Step 4: Implement and Follow Up on the Solution – – – © 2007 by Prentice Hall Implement at proper time and in the right sequence Provide opportunities for feedback Engender acceptance Establish ongoing monitoring system Evaluate based on problem solution 3 -6

Constraints on the Analytical Problem-Solving Model • Defining the problems – Lack of consensus on the problem – Acceptance of problem definition – Symptoms are often confused with the real problem – Confusing information © 2007 by Prentice Hall 3 -7

Constraints on the Analytical Problem-Solving Model • Generating Alternatives – Alternatives are evaluated as they are proposed – Few possible alternatives are usually known – The first acceptable solution is usually accepted – Alternatives are based on what was successful in the past © 2007 by Prentice Hall 3 -8

Constraints on the Analytical Problem-Solving Model • Evaluating and Select an Alternative – – – © 2007 by Prentice Hall Information on alternatives is limited Search for information occurs close to home The type of information is constrained by other factors Gathering information is costly Preferences for the best alternatives are not always known 3 -9

Constraints on the Analytical Problem-Solving Model • Implementation and Follow up – – – © 2007 by Prentice Hall Acceptance is not always forthcoming Resistance to change Uncertainty about what part of solution to monitor Political and organizational processes must be managed It may take a long time to implement a solution 3 -10

Impediments to Creative Problem Solving • Most people assume creativity is one dimensional •

Four Types of Creativity Insert Figure 3. 1 © 2007 by Prentice Hall 3

Key Dimensions of the Four Types Insert Figure 3. 2 © 2007 by Prentice

Examples for Four Types © 2007 by Prentice Hall 3 -14

Conceptual Blocks Mental obstacles that constrain the way problems are defined. © 2007 by

Two Examples 1. Percy Spencer’s Magnetron lead to the invention of the microwave 2.

Conceptual Blocks 1. 2. 3. 4. © 2007 by Prentice Hall Constancy Commitment Compression

Conceptual Blocks 1. The constancy block refers to being wedded to one point of view and being unable to change perspectives. a. vertical thinking: ignoring alternative problem definitions and thus pursuing a narrow solution path. b. single thinking language: people use only words and verbal language to think about problems © 2007 by Prentice Hall 18

De. Bono’s Ways of Thinking • Vertical Thinking – – Continuity Chooses Stability Searches for what is right – Analytic – Where the idea came from – Develops an idea © 2007 by Prentice Hall • Lateral Thinking – – Discontinuity Changes Instability Searches for what is different – Provocative – Where the idea is going – Discovers the idea 3 -19

Multiple Thinking Languages • Words • Symbols • Sensory (i. e. smell) • Feelings

Multiple Thinking Languages The more languages available to problem solvers, the more creative the

The Matchstick Configuration © 2007 by Prentice Hall 3 -22

Conceptual Blocks • 2. The commitment block : unwillingness to change perspectives once someone has taken a stance on a particular point of view. a. stereotyping based on past experiences b. ignoring commonalties © 2007 by Prentice Hall 23

a. Perceptual Stereotyping When individuals define present problems in terms of problems that they

Shakespeare Riddle Insert figure 3. 5 © 2007 by Prentice Hall 3 -25

b. Ignoring Commonalities Creativity is blocked when individuals fail to find the common thread

Conceptual Blocks 3. The compression block • 3. The compression block : looking too narrowly at a problem, defining it in a constricted way, or screening out relevant information. a. artificial constraints: placing unnecessary boundaries around a problem. b. not separating figure from ground, which means not constraining a problem sufficiently so that it can be solved. © 2007 by Prentice Hall 27

Name That Ship! Insert figure 3. 6 © 2007 by Prentice Hall 3 -28

Examples of Compression Artificial Constraints Insert figure 3. 7 Separating Figure From Ground ©

Conceptual Blocks 4. The complacency block • The complacency block occurs as a result of fear, ignorance, insecurity, or mental laziness. a. Noninquisitiveness: unwillingness to ask questions, gather information, or search for relevant data. b. bias against thinking: a preference for taking action over engaging in thought and reflection. © 2007 by Prentice Hall 30

Examples of Complacency • Noninquisitiveness: Unwillingness to ask questions • Bias against thinking: Proclivity

Insert Table 3. 4 © 2007 by Prentice Hall 3 -32

Stages in Creative Thought • Preparation • Incubation • Illumination • Verification © 2007

Conceptual Blocks • To unfreeze you from your normal skeptical, analytical approach to problems and increase your playfulness: (1) methods for defining problems (2) ways for generating alternative solutions. © 2007 by Prentice Hall 34

1. Ways to Improve Problem Definition Make the strange familiar and the familiar strange – Synectics Four Types of Analogies 1. Personal: individuals try to 2. Direct : individuals apply facts, technology, and common experience to the problem 4. fantasy analogies: individuals ask the question “In my wildest dreams, how would I wish the problem to be resolved? ” (e. g. , “I wish all employees would work with no supervision. ”). identify themselves as the problem (“If I were the problem, how would I feel, what would I like, what could satisfy me? ”) 3. Symbolic: symbols or images are imposed on the problem (e. g. , modeling the problem mathematically or diagramming the process flow)

1. Ways to Improve Problem Definition Elaborate on the Definition • Ways to enlarge, alter, or replace a problem definition: v Force yourself to generate at least two alternative hypotheses for every problem definition. v Think in plural rather than singular terms. “What is the problem? ” v. What are the problems? ” “What is the meaning of this? ” What are the meanings of this? ” “What will be the result? “What will be the results? ” v Use a question checklist: series of questions designed to help you think of alternatives to your accepted definitions. : ❏ Is there anything else? ❏ Is the reverse true? ❏ Is this a symptom of a more general problem? ❏ Who sees it differently? 37

Make the strange familiar and the familiar strange – Synectics Reverse the definition of the problem • Turn the problem upside down, inside out, or back to front. • Reverse the way in which you think of the problem. • Janusian thinking: v. Janus was the Roman god with two faces that looked in opposite directions vthinking contradictory thoughts at the same time v conceiving 2 opposing ideas to be true concurrently • . © 2007 by Prentice Hall 39

Make the strange familiar and the familiar strange – Synectics Reverse the definition of the problem • Creative people who actively formulate antithetical ideas and then resolve them produce the most valuable contributions to the scientific and artistic worlds • Opposites and backward looks enhance creativity • Reverse or contradict the currently accepted definition in order to expand the number of perspectives considered. morale is too high morale is too low in our team (we may need more discipline), employees need more motivation to increase productivity. employees need less motivation (more direction) 40

2. Ways to Generate More Alternatives • Because a common tendency is to define problems in terms of available solutions : – the problem is defined as already possessing a certain set of possible solutions, – consider a minimal number and a narrow range of alternatives in problem solving. • The primary characteristics of effective creative problem solvers are their fluency and their flexibility of thought – Fluency: the number of ideas or concepts produced in a given length of time. – Flexibility: the diversity of ideas or concepts generated. While most problem solvers consider a few homogeneous alternatives, creative problem solvers consider many heterogeneous alternatives • 3 techniques to improve your ability to generate a large number and a wide variety of alternatives when faced with problems, whether they be imagination, improvement, investment, or incubation: © 2007 by Prentice Hall 41

2. Ways to Generate More Alternatives 1. Defer judgment – Brainstorming 2. Expand current

Rules of Brainstorming 1. No evaluation of ideas is permitted 2. Wild ideas are

Expand current alternatives • Need an external stimulus or way to break through conceptual blocks to generate new ideas. • Subdivision, or dividing a problem into smaller parts: technique for enlarging the alternative set: • subdivision improves problem solving by increasing the speed with which alternatives can be generated and selected. © 2007 by Prentice Hall 44

3. Combine Unrelated Attributes • Forcing the integration of seemingly unrelated elements. • Ability to see common relationships among disparate factors is a major factor differentiating creative from noncreative individuals. • Two ways to do this – morphological synthesis – the relational algorithm 45

Morphological Synthesis 1. The problem is written down 2. Attributes of the problem are listed 3. Alternatives to each attribute are listed 4. Different alternatives from the attributes are combined © 2007 by Prentice Hall 3 -46

Morphological Synthesis Illustration • Suppose you are faced with the problem of an employee who takes an extended lunch break almost every day despite your reminders to be on time. • Think of alternative ways to solve this problem. • The first solution that comes to mind for most people is to sit down and have a talk with (or threaten) the employee. • If that doesn’t work, most of us would reduce the person’s pay, demote or transfer him or her, or just fire the person. • However, look at what other alternatives can be generated by using morphological synthesis (see Table 3. 7) 47

Relational Algorithm Applying connecting words that force a relationship between two elements in a

Relational Algorithm © 2007 by Prentice Hall 50

International Caveats • The perspective taken in this chapter has a clear bias toward Western culture. • Creativity in Western culture focuses on analytical and creative problem solving as methods for addressing specific issues. Enhancing creativity has a specific purpose, and that is to solve certain kinds of problems better. • Creativity in Eastern cultures is focused less on creating solutions than on uncovering enlightenment, one’s true self, or the achievement of wholeness or self-actualization. It is aimed at getting in touch with the unconscious. 51

International Caveats • Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s (1987, 2004) model is useful for – understanding the international caveats – fostering creative problem solving in international settings or with individuals from different countries, that must be kept in mind. • Countries differ, for example, in their orientation toward internal control (Canada, United States, United Kingdom) versus external control (Japan, China, Czech Republic). • In internal cultures, the environment is changeable, so creativity focuses on attacking problems directly. • In external cultures, because individuals assume less control of the environment, creativity focuses less on problem resolution and more on achieving insight or oneness with nature. Changing the environment is not the usual objective. 52

International Caveats • cultures emphasizing a specific orientation (Sweden, Denmark, United Kingdom, France) are more likely to challenge the status quo and seek new ways to address problems than cultures emphasizing a diffuse culture (China, Nigeria, India, Singapore) in which loyalty, wholeness, and long-term relationships are more likely to inhibit individual creative effort. © 2007 by Prentice Hall 53

International Caveats • This is similar to the differences that are likely in countries emphasizing universalism (Korea, Venezuela, China, India) as opposed to particularism (Switzerland, United States, Sweden, United Kingdom, Germany). • Cultures emphasizing universalism tend to focus on generalizable outcomes and consistent rules or procedures. • Particularistic cultures are more inclined to search for unique aberrations from the norm, thus having more of a tendency toward creative solution finding. • Managers encouraging conceptual blockbusting and creative problem solving, in other words, will find some individuals more inclined toward the rule-oriented procedures of analytical problem solving and less inclined toward the playfulness and experimentation associated with 54 creative problem solving than others

Hints to Facilitate Creative Problem Solving • Give yourself relaxation time • Find a place where you can think • Talk to other people about ideas • Ask other people for their suggestions about your problems • Read a lot • Protect yourself from idea-killers © 2007 by Prentice Hall 3 -55

A Model of Analytic and Creative Problem Solving Insert figure 3. 10 © 2007

Three Principles for Fostering Creativity 1. Pull people apart; put people together: C C 2. provide separate areas for people to develop new ideas putting them back together into teams and groups. Monitor and prod: C C 3. provide the resources needed for innovation hold people accountable for producing creative ideas. Reward multiple roles: C C idea champion, sponsor/mentor, orchestrator/facilitator, rule breaker. 3 -57