Defining Motivation The result of the interaction between

Defining Motivation The result of the interaction between the individual and the situation. The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal. Three key elements: � Intensity – how hard a person tries � Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and consistent with, organizational goals � Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort

Framework of Motivation

Motivational Models

Early Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Mc. Gregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Mc. Clelland’s Theory of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. Assumptions Higher Order Internal Lower Order External Self. Actualization Esteem � Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied � Must move in hierarchical order Social Safety Physiological

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs — Dominance of Physiological Needs Salf-Actulization Needs Dominant In The Need Structure

Alderfer’s ERG Theory A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research. Three groups of core needs: � Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety) � Relatedness (Maslow: social and status) � Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization) Removed the hierarchical assumption � Can be motivated by all three at once Popular, but not accurate, theory R E G

Mc. Gregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and Theory Y (positive). � Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view � The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees Theory X • Workers have little ambition • Dislike work • Avoid responsibility Theory Y • Workers are selfdirected • Enjoy work • Accept responsibility No empirical evidence to support this theory.

HERZBERG’S 2 FACTOR THEORY Frederick Herzberg and his associates conducted a research study based on interviews of 200 engineers and accountants working in 11 different firms in U. S. A Findings revealed that there are 2 sets of factors which affect satisfaction or dissatisfaction of employees. 1. Dissatisfiers or hygiene factors or maintenance factors 2. Motivational factors or satisfiers

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs Extrinsic and Related to Dissatisfaction Hygiene Factors Motivator s Company Policies Growth Salary Responsibili ty Work Conditions Achieveme nt Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction

Herzberg’s Hygienes and Motivators

Essence of the two-factor Theory

Difference Between Maslow’s and Herzberg’s Motivational Theories Issue Maslow Herzberg Type of theory The satisfaction Descriptive Unsatisfied needs energise performance relationship causes performance Prescriptive Needs cause performance behaviour, this behaviour Need order Effect of pay Hierarchy of needs Pay is a motivator if it satisfies needs No hierarchy Pay is not a motivator Effect of needs All needs are motivators at various times Only some needs are motivators existence Macro view – deals with all aspects with work related Micro view – deals primarily of motivation Worker level Relevant for all workers Probably more relevant to white – collar and professional workers View of motivation

Criticisms of Two-Factor Theory Herzberg says that hygiene factors must be met to remove dissatisfaction. If motivators are given, then satisfaction can occur. Herzberg is limited by his procedure � Participants had self-serving bias Reliability of raters questioned � Bias or errors of observation No overall measure of satisfaction was used Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong relationship between satisfaction and productivity

Mc. Clelland’s Three Needs Theory Need for Achievement (n. Ach) � The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed Need for Power (n. Pow) � The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise Need for Affiliation (n. Aff) � The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships People have varying levels of each of the three needs. � Hard to measure

Performance Predictions for High n. Ach People with a high need for achievement are likely to: � Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success, avoiding very low- or high-risk situations � Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk � Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus. Most good general managers do NOT have a high n. Ach � Need high level of n. Pow and low n. Aff for managerial success Good research support, but it is not a very practical theory

Contemporary Theo ries of Motivation Equity Theory Expectancy Theory Goal-Setting Theory � Management by Objectives (MBO)

Adams’ Equity Theory Employees compare their ratios of outcomesto-inputs of relevant others. � When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no tension as the situation is considered fair � When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness Underrewarded states cause anger Overrewarded states cause guilt � Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity

Equity Theory’s “Relevant Others” Can be four different situations: � Self-Inside The person’s experience in a different job in the same organization � Self-Outside The person’s experience in a different job in a different organization � Other-Inside Another individual or group within the organization � Other-Outside Another individual or group outside of the organization

Reactions to Inequity Employee behaviors to create equity: � � � Change inputs (slack off) Change outcomes (increase output) Distort/change perceptions of self Distort/change perceptions of others Choose a different referent person Leave the field (quit the job) Propositions relating to inequitable pay: � Paid by time: � Overrewarded employees produce more Underrewarded employees produce less with low quality Paid by quality: Overrewarded employees give higher quality Underrewarded employees make more of low quality

Justice and Equity Theory Procedural Justice Distributive Justice • Fairness of outcome process • Fairness of outcome Interactional Justice • Being treated with dignity and respect Organizationa l Justice Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome Expectancyto of the individual. Instrumentality of Valuation of the performance success in getting reward in employee’s eyes

Implementation: Management by Objectives MBO is a systematic way to utilize goalsetting. Goals must be: � Tangible � Verifiable � Measurable Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization. Four common ingredients to MBO programs: � Goal specificity � Participative decision making � Explicit time period

Motivational Theories

Types of Motivation

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation What if the organisations are not ready to unleash the intrinsic motivation of employees? � Use contingent rewards and constructive task feedback for developing the feeling of personal competence and stronger self efficacy � Utilize the insights from spiritual and positive thinking on work in general and organisational behaviour in specific � Encourage more internalization and emotional alignment through managing work culture, socialization and long term rewards

Employee Identification as a bridge between Extrinsic and Intrinsic motivation

Applications of Motivation by goal setting: Management by objectives (MBO) MBO is based on the philosophy that the manager and the managed ought to negotiate or collaborate on defining the objectives the employee is to pursue over the next time period. Reward system for high performance: Behaviour modification Rewards systems based on the assumptions that people in positions of authority can be taught to use environmental consequences to stimulate and shape the behaviours of people. Job design affecting work outcomes § § Job Rotation Job Enlargement Job Enrichment Job Characteristics Model Motivation by empowerment § Self Initiated Empowerment § Empowerment by Others § Empowerment by Managers

Job Characteristics Model

Framework of ob Mod